THE Honest ART DICTIONARY

THE ART HISTORY BABES

A JOVIAL TRIP THROUGH ART JARGON

Illustrated by

Carmen Casado

ABOUT THE ART HISTORY BABES

Hello, and welcome to the book!

Individually we are Natalie De La Torre, Corrie Hendricks, Jennifer Gutierrez, and Virginia Van Dine. Collectively, we are the Art History Babes. One day, while studying art history at the University of California, Davis, the four of us found ourselves having a particularly rowdy conversation about Italian Baroque sculptor Gian Lorenzo Bernini and his sordid past. Within moments, the Art History Babes podcast was born. The podcast began as an outlet for our grad school-induced anxieties and has since blossomed into a multimedia platform and digital community consisting of podcasts, videos, social media, and now, books!

The term “Art History Babe” originally stems from friendship. It began as a term of endearment used between the four of us, and as the podcast came to fruition, it was the obvious choice for the title. Since the podcast’s inception, the term Art History Babe has come to encompass something much larger than us four art nerds. An Art History Babe is not just us, it’s you as well. An Art History Babe is anyone who loves art, art history, and/or visual culture. It’s as broad and as simple as that. It’s not gendered, it’s not relegated to outwardly “artsy” people, and it is not used in reference to any societal beauty standard. Being an Art History Babe is more about connecting to art in whatever form appeals to you. It carries with it a sense of joy and empowerment. Art helps the four of us make more sense of this wild world and we hope to share that sentiment with all of you.

IN THE BEGINNING, THERE WAS INTRODUCTION TO ART…

By “the Beginning” we mean your first contact with the field of art history—whether that was in high school or college—and by “Introduction to Art” we mean any variation of the woefully banal, painfully drudging intro course that will often be the first and last art history class the general public will ever take. This course usually takes you from the vocabulary of art (hello elements and principles!) to the timeline of style shifts in Western art, starting from ancient Greece and ending with European Modernism (with maybe one or two classes that lumped all non-Western art under labels like “Asian art” or “Arts of the Americas”). Class time usually consists of sitting in a dark room, trying to stay awake, while grainy slide after grainy slide is displayed on the overhead projector.

Or maybe this very moment, when you chose to pick up this book and flip through its pages, is your first foray into the world of art history. If this is the case, welcome! And please keep reading because this book was made with you in mind as well.

We at the Art History Babes have a deep, passionate, sometimes over-the-top love for the study of art. We believe in art’s value and power and we believe it to be central to the human experience. We are also well aware that the nature of “art-speak” can be completely alienating and—let’s be real—elitist as hell. Is it any wonder, then, that the field of art history has long been maligned as being out-of-touch and snobby? The art world can be a strange, seemingly impenetrable place. Stereotypes that may come to mind are stylish art dealers in all black with oversized glasses who speak about a work of art using buzzwords like “derivative” and “dynamic”. Or it’s a stuffy auction house filled with portraits of dead white people painted by old white guys called “Old Masters”. What does that even mean? (Don’t worry, we’ll tell you!).

Hey, friends, we hear you—art and art lingo can be hard to understand and appreciate. We’re here to explain away the confusion, define the dull (but in a fun way), and decode the terminology of art! Why are we doing this, you ask? Well, because we love art. And you.

This book is meant to act as a helping hand in defining art terms you may come across in class, museums, galleries, or perhaps in conversations with the tattooed Art Bro you’ve been casually dating. With these terms decoded, you can glide into a gallery and lay down that art jargon with the best of them. We will also cover terms you know and recognize but maybe just need a refresher on. If you’ve ever thought, “I hear the word acrylic all the time but what is it actually? This book is for you. At its core, this book aims to give you a deeper understanding of the language of art: its varied history, background, and intent. We’ve covered a wide range of topics here because, more than anything, we hope this book expands your curiosity.

We all have advanced degrees in art history, so we know a thing or two when it comes to art (humble brag). That being said, while writing this book, it was amazing how much we learned. There were terms some of us had never heard before, had forgotten, or had never actually understood. The breadth of art terminology is vast. Undoubtedly, we could have included many more terms here and you would have yourself a tome the size of a toddler in your arms. Alas, we were selective in what we chose to write about, in order to make a more digestible book on the language of art.

Creating a fully comprehensive compilation of art and art history terms is impossible. As is writing definitions for these terms that will satisfy every single reader. While we hope you find this book to be a valuable educational tool, please keep in mind that art (and life) are extremely subjective. Therefore, in order to spice things up a bit, you will find many of our own feelings and opinions inserted into this dictionary of terms. If you find yourself disagreeing with our take on a particular artist or art movement, great! That’s what discourse is about, babyyy.

Ultimately, we encourage you to make meaningful connections between art and your life. Art helps us understand the world. It expands our creativity and sense of wonder, and it just makes everything more fun—all the fundamentals of living an enriched-ass life.

We hope this book adds even a little sparkle of that enrichment to yours.

TIMELINE

> 60,000 BCE

The oldest known cave painting is created by a legit Neanderthal in the Maltravieso cave in Cáceres, Spain.

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28,000 – 25,000 BCE

Venus of Willendorf is created, possibly as a fertility statue. Thousands of years later this figurine would become a symbol of *girl power*.

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3000–2000 BCE

Stonehenge is believed to have been built for any number of mysterious purposes. Burial site? Solar calendar? Alien landing pad? Who knows.

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432 BCE

The Parthenon is built as a temple to the Greek goddess Athena, completing the Athenian acropolis.

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323 BCE

Alexander the Great dies, marking the start of the Hellenistic period in which ancient Greeks were hyped about their vast empire and created a lot of art.

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200 BCE

The practice of calligraphy is first recorded in China.

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30 BCE

Cleopatra, the last ruler of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt, kills herself rather than surrender to Rome, resulting in many future artists painting a hypersexual Cleo offering her boob to a poisonous snake—sigh.

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480 CE

The fall of Rome –Byzantine rule begins and lasts until 1453.

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800

Book of Kells is written

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1070s

The Bayeux Tapestry, a 70-meter-long embroidery commemorating the Norman conquest of England, is made. Charlemagne started building structures that looked “kinda Roman” and Romanesque-style architecture was born.

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1492

Genoese explorer Christopher Columbus lands on the American continent. Systematic European colonialism is born. Yikes.

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1495–1505

Hieronymous Bosch paints the infamously trippy The Garden of Earthly Delights triptych.

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1503

Leonardo da Vinci painted the Mona Lisa. And it’s a really big deal for some reason.

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1517

Martin Luther nailed some ideas on a door. This caused the massive paradigm shift known as the Protestant Reformation. Art depicting Christianity (which let’s face it, is a lot of it) begins to develop outside of the Catholic context and we get styles such as Northern Mannerism.

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1550

Giorgio Vasari publishes the first edition of The Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects, essentially making the discipline of art history a thing.

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1606

Bad boy of the Baroque, Caravaggio murders Renuccio Tomasoni with a SWORD and is then on the run from the law for the rest of his life and career.

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1614–20

Boss babe and Baroque painter Artemisia Gentileschi paints Judith Beheading Holofernes. Hundreds of years later it would become a symbol of righteous female rage.

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1652

Gian Lorenzo Bernini completes the infamously sexy sculpture, the Ecstasy of St. Teresa which gets people all hot and bothered.

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1757

Edmund Burke writes about the theory of the Sublime—face the overwhelming power of nature and get humble!

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1760

Choo choo! The Industrial Revolution has arrived and Europe and the U.S. are pretty much obsessed with production and progress.

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1789–99

Hello French Revolution. Goodbye Rococo and all your sugary decadence.

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1822

French scholar Jean-François Champollion is the first to decipher ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs, and English Egyptologists are pissed that it wasn’t a Brit who cracked the code first.

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1864–71

Edmonia Lewis gains widespread recognition for her Neoclassical sculptures representing themes related to the experiences of African Americans and indigenous peoples in America.

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1888

Van Gogh ear incident.

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1896

Mystic painter extraordinaire Hilma af Klint starts talking to ghosts and makes some truly transcendental abstract paintings. These would then be hidden away for over 50 years to avoid her being thrown in a mental hospital.

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1900

The Ashcan School is founded, creating art that celebrates the grit of working class New York at the turn of the century.

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1907

Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque get really into cubes.

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1910

The Mexican Revolution begins—Frida Kahlo later claims this as her birth year (even though she was born in 1907) in order to align herself with the modern Mexico.

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1914–18

WWI brings with it devastation and warfare, the likes of which the world had never seen. Understandably this has a big impact on art.

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1917–23

The Russian Revolution: out with the Tsardom, in with the proletariat.

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1919

Bauhaus founded by the architect Walter Gropius.

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1920s

The Harlem Renaissance is born.

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1928

Brazillian poet Oswald de Andrade published the Manifesto Antropófago.

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1928

Chrysler building was built in NYC.

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1933

Bauhaus shut down by Nazis (boooo).

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1939–45

WWII

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1946

“Abstract Expressionism” becomes a term widely applied to art made in America during the 1940s and 50s.

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1962

Andy Warhol opens his midtown Manhattan studio known as “The Factory”. It becomes an infamous hang out for artistic types and, needless to say, everyone has a real good time.

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1964

Yoko Ono performs Cut Piece for the first time in Kyoto, Japan. This powerful and personally invasive performance work would go on to inform the later performance works of Marina Abramović and Shia Labeouf of "Even Stevens" fame.

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1970

Founding year of Art Basel in Basel, Switzerland.

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1978

Edward Said publishes Orientalism taking down the problematic ways in which colonial nations have fetishized and exoticized the Middle East and Asia.

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1980

Jean-Michel Basquiat breaks through as a solo artist after showing in a group exhibition in New York where various art dealers and curators saw his work and dug it.

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1981

18-year-old architecture student Maya Lin submits a design for the future Vietnam Veteran’s Memorial in Washington, D.C. Lin’s design is chosen and her modern take on the war memorial is built. Her architecture professor gave her a B on the assignment.

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1985

The Guerrilla Girls is formed. This group of anonymous activists donning gorilla masks spend the next 35 years speaking out against racism and sexism within the art world.

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1989

After being diagnosed with AIDS, Keith Haring establishes the Keith Haring Foundation with the intention of using his art to generate activism and awareness about the AIDS epidemic.

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1990s

Prepare to have your realities rocked, the internet is here! And it’s gonna change the way art is created and consumed on just about every level.

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1992

YBA bad boy Damien Hirst made his immersive art installation Pharmacy—a drug store full of empty pill boxes, shaking up the standard ways in which people view art.

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1994

Kara Walker’s cut-paper silhouette mural Gone, An Historical Romance of a Civil War as It Occurred Between the Dusky Thighs of One Young Negress and Her Heart demands the art world’s attention with its portrayal of slavery and violence in the Antebellum south.

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2014

Yayoi Kusama becomes the highest paid living female artist of all time.

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2016

A tipsy night of grad school decompression amongst four friends at a local bar leads to the now ubiquitous “we should start a podcast” moment, and the Art History Babes podcast is born!

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2018

Banksy’s painting Girl With a Balloon is sold for $1.4 million at Sotheby’s and then immediately shreds itself to the shock and awe of wealthy art world spectators.

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2018

An AI painting is sold at auction for the first time for (drum roll) $432,500. Technology’s a trip. So is capitalism.

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2019

Maurizio Cattelan taped a banana on the wall at Art Basel Miami and it was a whooole thing. The work sold for $150,000. How Duchamp must have giggled from the afterlife.

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2020

Art History Babes publish their first book!

A

ABSTRACT EXPRESSIONISM (n.)

Abstract Expressionism is an art movement that began in America, specifically New York, after World War II. Ab-Ex, as the cool kids call it, is all about abstraction and conveying emotion in painting. Ab-Ex painters were coming up in post-WWII America (see postwar art), in a culture that was largely conservative and churning with Cold War politics and paranoia—it’s no wonder artists were striving to express their thoughts and feelings on canvas. Painters such as Helen Frankenthaler, Mark Rothko, and Lee Krasner were developing new ways of painting abstractly and expressively. You can’t really pin down a single style to unite Ab-Ex painters. Rather, they should be noted for breaking the mold of traditional painting techniques by using unique materials such as house paint, putting canvases on the floor as opposed to easels and walls, and having a sense of spontaneity in their work. G

CARYATID, CONSTRUCTIVISM, SCULPTURE

ABSTRACTION (n.)

The general concept of abstraction is difficult to define and gets really, well, abstract. So, we’re gonna keep it simple and just talk about abstraction in art, which is called abstract art (imagine that). Abstract art is unconcerned with depicting things from the visible world in a realistic way, and sometimes ignores the visible world altogether. There are varying degrees of abstraction—from reshaping the natural world à la Pablo Picasso to depicting completely unrecognizable subject matter, as in African–American Expressionist painter Alma Thomas’s explorations of deep color and form in the 1950s. So why abstraction? Sometime around the turn of the 20th century, it seems artists were starting to feel disillusioned with the material world. Advancements in science and technology, changes in urban life, and a rising interest in psychoanalytic theory began to cause many to question the very nature of reality and our place within it. Innovations in photography especially pushed artists to challenge the limits of their medium in order to make some new discoveries. Thus, abstraction became a tool for artists to utilize in order to explore everything from the enigma of the fourth dimension (Cubism) to the mysteries of our most complex human emotions (Abstract Expressionism). Through abstraction, artists were able to offer alternative ways of seeing, which is extremely awesome.

I know what you are thinking, “But Je-ennn, I’ve seen that stuff in museums and I could do that!” Well then, go right ahead, sweetie. Show us what you got. J

ACCIDENTAL PAINTING (n.)

Accidental painting—while not quite an accident, does require a certain level of chance aesthetics. This technique involves pouring a synthetic paint onto a flat, horizontal surface, and waiting for it to spread before pouring paint of a different color on top. Slow, controlled pouring of the secondary colors results in trippy, unexpected patterns, due to the layers of paint infiltrating one another.

Mexican painter David Alfaro Siqueiros developed the technique in the 1930s, when he began experimenting with synthetic paint and different application techniques. He was amazed by the simple process coupled with the complex results. Using acrylic paint, he found the medium would adhere to the surface no problem, while also creating these otherworldly effects. For example, in Collective Suicide (1936), he created portions of the work using this method with a fast-drying lacquer typically reserved for painting cars. In 1936, Siqueiros held his first workshop for new techniques in New York City called the Siqueiros Experimental Workshop. None other than Jackson Pollock reportedly attended one of these workshops, meaning it’s likely his infamous splatter paintings were in some way influenced by his time spent in Siqueiros’ workshop. N

ACROPOLIS (n.)

High city. No, I’m not talking about that kind of high city (shout out to Denver and legalized cannabis though). I’m talking about an acropolis, meaning “high city” or “upper city” in Greek. The ancient Greeks built city-states made up of core cities and surrounding territories that, as a whole, acted as independent states within larger Greece. They often built a temple on the acropolis, which served as the literal and symbolic center of the city-state. These centers were also fortified with high walls. If a city-state came under attack, residents would take cover in the acropolis, where they had the advantage of being less exposed, but also the ability to see enemy invaders coming. The ancient Greeks are renowned for their architecture and some acropolis temples are still standing today, including the Parthenon on the Athenian Acropolis. The Parthenon was dedicated to Athena, goddess of war and wisdom, so of course it still stands strong and badass to this day. G

ACRYLIC PAINT (n.)

Not all paint is created equal. When acrylic paint arrived on the art scene in the 1930s, artists were drawn to the medium because a) it sticks to nearly anything and b) it dries quickly. A relatively new medium compared to oil paint or tempera paint, it gave artists the option of a more convenient and nontoxic paint to work with.

David Alfaro Siqueiros helped popularize the medium among artists when he used synthetic paint to develop his accidental painting style. Thanks in large part to him, acrylic paint was commercially available by 1955. Pop artist David Hockney discovered acrylic in the 1960s and used it to create many of his famous swimming pool paintings, including Portrait of an Artist (Pool with Two Figures) (1972).

Basically, acrylic is the chameleon of paints. It’s meant to be applied in layers, and the consistency and volume of paint in those layers facilitates the end result. It’s water-soluble, and can be applied in super thin, translucent layers called veils, to mimic watercolor paint. Or, it can be mixed with a special polymer medium so it behaves more like oil paint: layering gobs of it straight from the tube in thick impasto that will dry waaayyy faster than oil. For all these reasons, and more, acrylic paint is an excellent choice for beginners and professional artists alike. N

ACTION PAINTING (n.)

If Jackie Chan had buckets of paint strapped to his arms and legs in Rush Hour 2, and there just happened to be a blank canvas nearby, you would end up with an action painting. Action painting describes a style in which paint is applied spontaneously to a surface. This includes splashing, splattering, dribbling, or smearing paint onto the canvas, rather than applying it carefully. The most essential aspect of action painting is the action, and the finished product should emphasize the physical act.

The style was popularized during the 1940s through 1950s and is most closely associated with Abstract Expressionism. The works of the action painters were not meant to portray objects or even specific emotions. Rather, they were meant to tap into the subconscious mind, evoking a sense of the primeval. This touches on psychiatrist Carl Jung’s theory of a collective archetypal visual language—this is the idea that we are born with ingrained primordial images that we can psychically recognize in the physical world. In other words, the appeal of action painting lies in its ability to tap into base human forms that make our brains feel good. Nice. J

ADDITIVE COLOR (n.)

All right, so, looking at a color wheel, primary colors are red, blue, and yellow. However, when talking about additive color, the primary colors are red, blue, and green. I’m sorry to throw your world into chaos like that, but bear with me. Color, as we see it, is basically just reflected light. Wavelengths of light travel to our eyes, which then perceive color. Our eyeballs have three types of cone receptors: red, blue, and green. So, our eyes are able to perceive wavelengths of light that are red, blue, and green. “Additive color” is a blanket term for all the colors we are able to see and how we are able to see them due to the mixing of red, blue, and green light. It is the varying combination of these three colors, traveling to our eyes in the form of wavelengths, that creates all perceivable colors. For example, when equal parts of red, blue, and green light connect, we perceive the color white. When all three colors are removed, we perceive black. Blending of the three colors allows us to see teals, mustards, periwinkles, salmons, and so on. Ultimately, additive color is all about light perception and how the mixing of only three colors can open up a Pandora’s box of color possibilities. G

AESTHETIC (n./adj.)

The word “aesthetic” is, and always has been, nebulous. It refers to a number of ideas and is used in a variety of contexts. Add in the 21st-century world of internet lingo and the word takes on even more meaning, with increased nuance.

In the realm of art history, aesthetic is often used as a noun describing the visual principles of an artwork, artist, or artistic movement. For example, “The overall aesthetic of her work is reminiscent of early 18th-century ukiyo-e,” (and the crowd oohs and aahs at your vast knowledge). Aesthetic can also be used as an adjective describing a concern or appreciation for beauty. This type of aesthetic is often used in philosophical and scientific discourse. “Aesthetics” is the branch of philosophy that picks apart unanswerable questions such as, “What is beauty?”

If that isn’t enough for you to wrap your mind around, aesthetic or #aesthetic has come into use across popular social media platforms in recent years. In this context, “aesthetic” can be used to describe something that is visually pleasing. For example, “Your blog is so #aesthetic” may be something you say to compliment a carefully curated tumblr feed of pastel colors, sunset shots, and “soft grunge” images. However, “aesthetic” can also describe one’s personal fashion, vibe, or lifestyle in a comedically simplified way. This often includes a specific image or pop culture reference. For example, “my aesthetic is Hermione Granger eating a cheeseburger” accompanied by a photo of a costumed Emma Watson at McDonald’s.

So, to answer your question, I suppose aesthetic is everything. It is all the things. C

AGNOTOLOGY (n.)

Agnotology is the study of culturally induced ignorance. If that doesn’t prick up your ears, I don’t know what will. The field was born when American science historian Robert Proctor learned how the tobacco industry used confusion and doubt about the dangers of smoking to deliberately spread ignorance. Now, in no way does that mean this was the first instance of agnotology on a large scale—really it had been around for centuries as a political tool. Maps are perfect examples of agnotology in action. When mapmakers of the past were filling in unchartered territory, they made up information to enforce certain assertions (see cartography). If you’ve ever read Homer’s Odyssey, you’ll know the monster-laden scenery I’m referring to. Oftentimes this involved fearmongering about areas and people that were unknown or foreign. I wish I could say that has died out over time, but alas. N

AI ART (n.)

Whenever people ask me why I love art so much, one of my favorite go-to answers is, “because creating art is distinctly human.” Lovely response isn’t it? Simple, elegant, universal. Too bad I’m wrong.

Robots make art now. Not only that, but Christie’s is out here selling portraits made by artificial intelligence for half a million dollars. Here’s how it works: a human feeds an algorithm of aesthetically pleasing images to a robot. The robot then learns the aesthetic elements of the images and spits out an image that follows those same guidelines. Boom! Robot art.

Now, whether or not AI art is actually created by humans (or can even be considered art) is up for debate. For one, humans build the AI in question. Humans also create the visual information the AI uses to make its art. Furthermore, the resultant artwork is dependent on the curation of images that is fed through the algorithm (by a human).

AI Art: An innovative approach to art-making, or further proof we’re in a simulation—who’s to say? C

AIRBRUSH (n./v.)

An airbrush is a wee tool that, when connected with pressurized air, sprays out liquid materials such as paint and ink. Airbrushes push fast-moving air through a pump that is able to spray the paint out in very fine splatters. When used correctly, there are no brushstrokes. Everything is smoothly and evenly applied. An airbrush artist has the ability to control the size of the spray in order to achieve a variety of styles and forms. The airbrush is not relegated to the art world alone: perhaps you’ve heard of airbrush makeup? Yes, you can spray your face and body with foundation so that you look like a perfect, poreless doll. People also airbrush cars, clothing, buildings, and more traditional art surfaces such as canvas and panel. While airbrushing reaches outside of the accepted realm of fine art, I appreciate its ability to be seen and experienced in many ways. I’m not saying your circa 1999 airbrushed Backstreet Boys sweatshirt is fine art, but people who paint with airbrushes are painting, and there is a great deal of skill and technique involved. If you don’t believe me, check out some airbrush videos on YouTube—a lot of them have electric guitar soundtracks and guys in garages, but the airbrush skills are real. G

CAMP, FRAME, LIGHT ART

ALIENATION (n.)

Let’s talk walls. Specifically, the fourth one. What is the fourth wall, you ask? It’s the imaginary barrier between performers and their audience. Alienation effect is the strategy used by performers to keep their audience from getting completely swept up into a story. In other words, they want to alienate the audience. While having a captive audience seems like a good thing, this theory says that, in order to stay critical, a viewer must be engaged, but not overtaken by their emotions. Only then can they remain a conscious observer. By breaking the fourth wall during a performance, actors remind the audience of their separation from what’s happening on stage. Performance artists often practice this theory by engaging with their audience in a way that keeps them from being passive observers. A shining example is Yoko Ono’s Cut Piece (1964), in which Ono invited audience members on stage and handed them scissors (go visit Jen at Fluxus for more on that).

German socialist, playwright, and poet Bertolt Brecht coined the term Verfremdungseffekt (estrangement effect) in 1936. He created techniques to alienate the audience, such as showing captions or images, breaking into song, highlighting the fakeness of backdrops, and general breaking of the fourth wall. So it seems I have Herr Brecht to thank for the trauma my ten-year-old self endured when the hyenas tore through that fourth wall and came down the theater aisles during The Lion King musical. In some ways, that made the show feel more real, but I can confirm it indeed shocked me back into my tiny, terrified body. N

ALTARPIECE (n.)

Fourteenth-century Italians loved going to church. For fun, let’s imagine a teenager named Giacomo sitting in the Basilica di Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari in Venice. The priest is giving mass, but his back is turned to the congregation and he’s speaking in Latin. Giacomo, along with many others in the church, does not understand Latin. What to do Giacomo? Well, here is where an altarpiece comes in. Altarpieces are works of art placed behind and above the altar in a Christian church. Some of these devotional pieces date as far back as the Middle Ages and were made with the intention of engaging worshippers while conveying a religious message. Biblical scenes on altarpieces provided an additional form of religious doctrine. So, while the priest drones on in Latin, Giacomo gazes up at the altarpiece depicting the Virgin Mary as she ascends into heaven after her death. The divine imagery and vibrant composition are meant to spiritually move Giacomo. Today you too can be moved by Titian’s altarpiece, the Assumption of the Virgin (1516–18), in its original location in Venice. G

AMERICAN REGIONALISM (n.)

In the 1930s, at the height of the Great Depression, an art movement cropped up that was all about the heartland—the American Midwest that is—in all its corn-laden glory. Forgive me if I get a bit sentimental, I hail from the great state of Iowa, along with the poster boy of American Regionalism, Grant Wood. One of the best-known paintings in contemporary cultural consciousness is Wood’s American Gothic (1930). It has been parodied in just about every sitcom created in the past thirty years. You know the painting, the ambiguously glum, pitchfork-wielding couple standing rigidly in front of a farmhouse. That’s quintessential American Regionalism right there. Proponents of American Regionalism believed that the modern art coming out of Europe at the time was out of touch with the American spirit. American Regionalists chose to focus on realism and storytelling in a way that celebrated the lives of hardworking midwestern folk, while capturing the raw reality of rural life during the years of the Great Depression. C

ANACHRONISM (n.)

Anachronism describes something that appears to belong to a different time period or place than the one it’s actually in. Imagine this: you’re going to a Renaissance fair with some friends because it sounds like fun to drink mead and maybe buy a cool hat. When you and your 21st-century friends arrive at the scene, you’re suddenly part of a world in which people are dressed as knights, ladies, lords, blacksmiths, and wizards. The woman at the mead stand is dressed like a 15th-century barmaid, yet you are not in the 15th century. This, in a nutshell, is an anachronism.

Artists have incorporated people from the past into their contemporary compositions, and vice versa, for centuries. Consider the fresco School of Athens (1509–11) made by Italian painter Raphael in the Vatican. At a quick glance, and without context, we could guess this scene contains men from the same time period, but look closer and something seriously anachronistic is going on. Second-century intellects are in the same space with men from the 6th century, seemingly all discussing topics in one collective space. Raphael used anachronism here to herald men of intellect in a painting that was made for men of intellect to look at. No one viewing the fresco in this context would be confused as to why men from different time periods were together in one scene.

There’s a painting currently hanging at the White House titled The Republican Club, by Andy Thomas. It depicts a jovial group of men sitting around a table. Notable Republican presidents from history—Richard Nixon, Ronald Reagan, both George Bushes, Theodore Roosevelt, Dwight D. Eisenhower, Gerald Ford, and Abraham Lincoln—sit at a table with Donald Trump. Now we all know Lincoln has long been dead and apart from a potential séance, Abe and Trump can’t chat and laugh while Trump guzzles his Diet Coke. However, this is anachronism at work. The reasons for anachronism in art are varied and vast, but it is always implemented with the intent to forge connections and make statements—whether on a wall in the Vatican, or on a wall in the White House. G

ANAMORPHOSIS (n.)

Anamorphosis, or an anamorphic image, is when an image is distorted in such a way as to be unrecognizable unless viewed at a certain angle or reflected in a mirror.

My favorite example of anamorphosis in art is Hans Holbein the Younger’s 1533 painting The Ambassadors. Holbein was a German-Swiss artist who thrived as a portrait painter in Tudor England, becoming the court painter for Henry VIII shortly after this painting was completed. The two fancy men in The Ambassadors were French ambassadors living in England at the time, and the painting is full of rich detail and symbolism. A large, striking skull is painted at the center of the composition, toward the ground. Viewing the object straight on, it doesn’t really look like a skull, but rather a piece of weird driftwood that somehow magically floated into the composition from some Surrealist painting. Position yourself to the right of the painting, however, and the skull is no longer stretched and distorted, but corrects itself to become recognizable. Holbein altered the skull in this way because it is a reminder of death (see memento mori). All other objects in the composition are rendered naturalistically because they represent earthly things, not transcendental things (like death). To view the anamorphic skull, you have to change your position, but it is still ever present at any angle—just like death! Here Holbein used anamorphosis in a very conceptual way to remind everyone, including fancy French ambassadors, that death comes for all … even if you can’t always see it. G

ANICONISM (n.)

See iconoclasm.

ANTIQUITY (n.)

Antiquity refers to the ancient time period prior to the Middle Ages. For example, an ancient Roman sculpture of Venus, the goddess of love, is considered an object from antiquity. When you hear about civilizations from antiquity, you’ve most likely heard about ancient Greece, Rome, Egypt, and Mesopotamia. Given that antiquity refers to civilizations and cultures before the Middle Ages, these are obviously not the only worlds from antiquity to consider. However, we hear more about these largely Mediterranean civilizations from antiquity because the original art historians—typically white, European men—told us they were the ones that mattered most. But the term “antiquity” casts a much wider net than those early art historians would have us believe.

Despite the centuries that separate ancient civilizations from the modern world, antiquity can still teach us a lot today. Through studying antiquity, we can learn about history, art, culture, innovation, and just, like, humanity in general. I’m not going to lie, that last part sounds like something a drunk girl pretending to be deep at a cocktail party would say, but I’m going to roll with it. G

ANTROPOFAGIA (n.)

Antropófagia is the Portuguese word for “anthropophagy,” the technical term for eating human flesh. It is also a term associated with a philosophy that guided the development of modernism in Brazilian art during the 1930s.

Let me give you a short history lesson: When the Spanish landed in the Lesser Antilles (in the Caribbean) in 1493, they encountered an indigenous group called the Carib (Carib, Caribbean, you see?). The Spanish explorers really wanted to enslave the Carib, but Queen Isabella said, “nah.” That is, until the explorers began sending reports of the Caribs performing human cannibalism back to the queen, who then said, “oh, hell no, enslave them asap.” Many reports of cannibalism subsequently emerged across both North and South American continents. They became so synonymous with the New World that images of America personified often showed a nude woman holding a disembodied human head, arm, or leg. Even the word “cannibalism” derives from the Spanish mispronunciation of Carib as Caniba.

Fast-forward 500 years, to a time when Brazilian authors, poets, and artists saw Europeans cannibalizing non-Western works in their art and calling it modern. That pissed some people off. So, they decided to cannibalize European modernism in their own unique brand of Brazilian modern art.

The Brazilian poet Oswald de Andrade published the Manifesto Antropófago in 1928. In it, he proposes that Brazil’s history of cannibalizing the works of other cultures is the country’s greatest strength. The manifesto’s iconic line, “Tupi or not Tupi: that is the question,” is simultaneously a celebration of the Tupi of Brazil, who practiced certain forms of ritual cannibalism, and a metaphorical instance of cannibalism: it eats Shakespeare. I love some good cannibal talk myself, it’s really my jam. But still, don’t eat people. It’s not a good look. J

APPRENTICE (n./v.)

First things first. Expel any thought of that godforsaken television show. Apprentices in the art world are simply students working under a professional or master of their craft. In Europe, this trend began during the Renaissance (see Italian/Northern Renaissance), when children as young as five were sent to apprentice in workshops. This feels like a bad idea for many reasons. Putting all the poisonous materials aside for a moment, five-year-olds aren’t exactly known for their dexterity, they love putting things in their mouths, and can’t reach anything higher than 4 feet (1.2 meters).

Apprenticing meant beginners could learn from more experienced artists, but it wasn’t all glamour. Much like studying under The Karate Kid’s Mr. Miyagi, apprentices would often clean equipment and prepare materials for their master. Eventually, though, they would learn some pretty neat techniques.

Apprenticeship helps keep certain traditions alive through multiple generations. During the Ottoman Empire, due to the importance of miniature painting, young artists were taught the techniques over years of apprenticeship. Having a professional artist for a parent could also provide a path to apprenticing. The Italian Baroque artist Artemisia Gentileschi was able to apprentice in her father’s workshop at a time when this was relatively uncommon for women (early 1600s). Through many hardships, she was able to use the skills she learned to build a successful career in her life because she was—and I cannot emphasize this enough—a complete badass. N

APPROPRIATION (n.)

In recent years, the word “appropriation” has taken on a pretty critical association due to the increased awareness of offensive and hurtful examples of cultural appropriation. Unfortunately, this has given the practice of appropriation a bad rap.

At its core, appropriation is the use of pre-existing images, objects, or ideas. It is super common in art and, well, life in general. It has even been argued that all art is appropriation in some form or another. Think about collage. The practice almost always involves the combination of images made by someone else.

Many professional art practices actively appropriate images created by others. In fact, the term “appropriation art” can be used to describe the work of artists such as Robert Rauschenberg and Sherrie Levine.

Nonetheless, appropriation can be seen as stealing. This tends to happen when no respect or credit is given to the originator of an image or idea. When it comes to appropriation in whatever form, it’s best to use the pre-existing material as a launching pad for something new, and always, always give credit where credit is due. C

ARCHAIC (adj.)/ ARCHAIC SMILE (n.)

Archaic means mega old. Most of the stuff we see from ancient Greece is, in fact, mega old, but scholars use the term “archaic” to describe a particular period of ancient Greek art.

The Archaic period in ancient Greece lasted from 600–480 BCE, and was stylistically more natural compared to the previous Geometric period. This move toward naturalism is attributed to contact with ancient Egypt. To help achieve a more lifelike appearance, artists of the time would give their sculptures a closed-lipped smile that came to be known as the archaic smile. Korai and kouroi statues made during this period often don the archaic smile, as it was believed to breathe life into the semirigid figures. While ancient Greeks found the archaic smile warm and inviting, I have to admit I find it slightly unnerving (if not just flat-out creepy). N

ARCHITECTURE (n.)

The straightforward definition of architecture is that it refers to constructed buildings and structures. Where people diverge in opinion on architecture, is whether it’s more art or more science. To be honest, architecture’s ability to dodge clear categorization is one of my favorite things about it. Throughout history, many artists have also worked as architects. Architecture requires artistic vision and creativity, but it is also a science that requires careful calculations and planning. The best way to find out what architecture means to you is to go out and experience it, because it’s everywhere, my dudes! G

ARCHIVE (n./v.)

An archive is a collection of preserved historical records or artifacts that refers to a specific group, location, or subject. Art archives are collections of art, objects, and primary resources concerning art, such as rare books and documents.

An archivist archives in the archives (see, it’s a noun and a verb—English is funny). Sometimes the archivist aids in the discovery of the key to an ancient mystery, but more often than not, they organize and maintain the archived sources for all to use—a truly noble cause. C

PORTRAIT, POP ART, TERRA COTTA

ART ADVISOR (n.)

An art advisor is like a financial advisor, but for art. Art advisors can help you acquire and sell art, based on their expert knowledge of the art market. Say you have a collection of paintings you inherited from your great uncle and you’d like to sell them: you can hire an art advisor to help you find the right institutions to sell to and how to broker the sale. Art advisors can also help clients looking to purchase art in a variety of ways, including sourcing art, bidding at auction houses, taking clients to galleries, putting art proposals together, and negotiating purchases with other art professionals and institutions. If you think this sounds like something reserved for the well-to-do, you’re not wrong. More often than not, clients who are hiring art advisors have some money to spare. No value judgments here, the art world most definitely needs its patrons. G

ART APPRAISAL (n.)

Appraisal is the act of assessing the value of a thing. An appraiser is someone who examines the thing, does research on the thing, and determines the market value of the thing. An art appraiser is someone that specializes in, you guessed it, art.

Say, one day, your grandmother found an interesting oil painting in the back corner of her attic. She does not recall the origin of the painting, just that it had been passed down to her from her grandmother. The painting is in relatively good condition and she finds the composition rather striking. Gran’s got a hunch it could be something valuable, and she’s been saving up for a trip to the Bahamas. Being the model grandchild you are, you help Granny hire an appraiser to determine the market worth of the painting. It could end up being a long-lost work of Gustav Klimt … or it could be something your great-great-grandmother made in a hobby class. Ultimately, the appraiser will help determine whether or not Granny will be rolling in the big bucks. C

ART BASEL (n.)

Art Basel is an international art fair that takes place annually in three major cities: Basel, Switzerland; Hong Kong, China; and Miami Beach, Florida. The fair is called Art Basel after the city in Switzerland, where it was first held in 1970. Art Basel is a space for galleries to show the work of artists they represent to potential clients. If you’ve ever been to a trade show, art fairs kind of have the same vibe: various booths set up as people roam around checking it all out. Art Basel continues to draw enormous crowds in each city, with visitors coming from all walks of life. Plenty of them work in the art world themselves and are there to scout talent and shop for clients. Others are shopping for art for themselves. And, of course, there are people who like to go for the experience of being around art. In addition to art browsing, you can also buy overpriced cocktails and observe the interesting outfits of other attendees. G

ART BRO (n.)

You’ve seen him before, probably at a gallery opening reception for the girl he has gaslit into changing her entire thesis show. He’s probably wearing couture acid-washed overalls, tastefully stained with streaks of paint and John Lennon-esque spectacles. He looks unamused, but we shouldn’t take that too seriously because he always looks like that. Yes, he is the art bro.

To understand the concept of the Art Bro we must first deconstruct the stereotype of the “Bro.” These are men who hang out with other bros, watch sports together, mansplain, grunt, and exclude women from their bro worlds. Now, remove sports and replace it with art, and remove grunting and replace it with chin-beard stroking, and you have yourself an Art Bro.

The Art Bro uses his superior knowledge of noise music and the art scene rather than UFC and trucks to exclude women. You will often find these men at art galleries, explaining art to women who are probably younger than them and are likely taken with his mysterious air of aloof resentment (and let’s be honest, we’ve all been there).

The Art Bro desperately wants to convey that he doesn’t care about fitting into society, and that the world at large does not understand his art. He is usually unemployed but travels constantly (high socioeconomic status—that is, having rich parents—is often a prerequisite for this brand of bro). When he eventually gets kicked off of his parents’ gravy train, he will likely take a job at his dad’s company and, somewhere down the road, open a microbrewery. It’s hard out here for the Art Bro, he is misunderstood, so if you see one around and he starts mansplaining art movements to you, consider your role as cultural anthropologist of this fascinating aspect of the late capitalist art scene. And then school the shit out of him. J

ART BRUT (n.)

Art brut is a French term meaning “raw art.” Art brut, often called outsider art, is art created outside of the academic tradition of art-making.

Now you may be asking yourself “Why is academically produced art called art and all other art called outsider art?” Because of a dumb elitist hierarchy, that’s why. However, for the sake of understanding the history of art, we will further define the term.

The term “outsider art” is pretty sticky. It came into use in 1972 mostly to refer to art produced by children, prisoners, and psychiatric patients. Stigmatize much?? The term has since expanded to include most art made outside of the established art world. Other terms that have been used to describe art of this kind are naïve art, folk art, and primitive art.

While the insider artist has undergone formal training, regularly engages with art historical tradition, and can adequately use art jargon to explain their work, the outsider artist is typically self-taught, and often disconnected from contemporary culture in some way. Since the 1990s, the term “outsider art” has been reclaimed by artists working independently of the established art world. Additionally, with the rise of social media, the means by which artists are able to market themselves has expanded and will likely turn the art world on its head. Does this mean the line between art and outsider art is blurring? I certainly hope so. C

ART CRITIC (n.)

An art critic’s job is to analyze and evaluate art. In this sense, the Art History Babes are sort of art critics. We spend a great deal of time looking at, discussing, and thinking about art. However, professional art critics often have this uncanny ability to believe that their opinions about art are objective truth, despite art being a rather subjective thing.

Yes, shade has been thrown.

Don’t get me wrong, art criticism and art critics are necessary and valuable. Art critics help us question art’s meaning and purpose. They encourage us to dig deeper. At its best, art criticism values cultural consciousness and brings to light how our thoughts, feelings, and biases affect the art we create and consume. At its worst, it discourages creativity and encourages an elitist art world. Ultimately, how you analyze and critique art is up to you, just beware the haters. C

ART DEALER (n.)

An art dealer acts as a sort of business bridge between an artist and a buyer. Art dealers represent different artists and aim to sell those artists’ work to clients. In this arrangement, clients do not buy art directly from the artist, but purchase it through the art dealer. The artist is paid by the art dealer and the art dealer gets a commission. Percentages of what the artist earns versus what the dealer is paid can vary, often it’s a fifty-fifty split. This might sound like a raw deal for an artist, but operating business dealings is a full-time job that often requires its own field of expertise—one that an artist may not be interested in. Dealers often work at art institutions such as galleries, but they can also work independently. This is not a new profession, as the history of dealing in art goes all the way back to the Renaissance, when dealers were slingin’ paintings into the collections of various patrons that included the king of France. G

ART DECO (n.)

SpongeBob SquarePants famously declared, “Everything is chrome in the future!”. This sentiment was not that different from what the early 20th-century Art Deco designers saw as the markers of progress in design.

“Art Deco” derives from the French arts décoratifs (decorative arts), from the Exposition internationale des arts décoratifs et industriels modernes (International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts) held in Paris in 1925. It was big in both Europe and the United States. Its combination of modern styles, fine craftsmanship, and rich materials led to associations with luxury and glamour. Chrome-plating, stainless steel, and plastic were all Art Deco favorites.

Designers looked to industry and technology for inspiration and, in doing so, applied the Art Deco style to skyscrapers, ocean liners, movie theaters, trains, and even everyday objects such as radios and vacuum cleaners. Look to the Chrysler Building in New York City for Art Deco par excellence. Complete with radiator-cap-themed ornaments, a chrome-and-nickel-plated, steel-framed spire made up of a series of tapering sunbursts, and a spectacular lobby covered with huge slabs of decorative, colored granite, the Chrysler Building is the Art Deco dream come true. J

ART FAIR (n.)

Ah, the art fair. Like any kind of fair, an art fair is a gathering place for buyers and sellers. Galleries set up booths and potential buyers peruse row after row of art in search of the perfect painting for above their mantel, or a free-standing sculpture that will really make a statement at their next holiday party. As a business model, the art fair has proven to be an effective and popular way to buy and sell art. From the buyer’s perspective, an art fair allows you to see a lot of art all in one place. You don’t have to go hopping around the city to various galleries, you just have to walk through a converted warehouse full of art. Art fairs allow galleries to reach new audiences and gain new clients. Some galleries even choose to forgo having a brick-and-mortar building, and instead travel around the world to sell at art fairs. Art fairs have really gained momentum since the turn of the century, some drawing huge crowds and even celebrity art collectors. Will I see you at Art Basel Miami this year, Leonardo DiCaprio? G

ART FOR ART’S SAKE (phr.)

A French philosophy that asks “Does art need to serve some greater moral purpose or are people just trying to keep me from living my life?”

Art for art’s sake, or l’art pour l’art, is a 19th-century catchphrase that claims true art need not serve a didactic, moral, or utilitarian purpose. Champions of art for art’s sake believe that art has intrinsic value simply because it is art. A painting of a colorful sunset is beautiful because a painting of a colorful sunset is beautiful.

BRUTALISM, KITSCH, PSYCHEDELIC ART

The phrase “l’art pour l’art” arose in response to increased politicization of art and, specifically, the philosophy of English art critic John Ruskin, who preached that great art should be an honest expression of one’s morality. At the time, enthusiasts of art for art’s sake did not see Ruskin’s moral criteria as a deal breaker. They believed that art was just as good, nay better, if it was dissociated from all political viewpoints.

Over time, many people have had many thoughts surrounding the phrase. For example, German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche argued that art is not purposeless or aimless, that ultimately an artist is expressing something about themselves, and that l’art pour l’art is itself a moral stance. Certain Marxist thinkers, on the other hand, doubled down on the idea that art must serve a social purpose, claiming that the phrase was empty. But let’s be real we will probably argue the purpose of art until the end of time, so …. C

ART HANDLER (n.)

See art preparator.

ART HISTORIAN (n.)

An art historian is a person who studies art history. Art historians believe and operate from the idea that art enhances our understanding of the human experience. Traditional art historians focus on the fine arts, but younger generations are embracing a broader view of what constitutes art, and that’s helping to expand the discipline into what is increasingly referred to as visual culture. Now, more than ever, we are bombarded by images via the multitude of devices we come into contact with on a daily basis. And while people sure do love to throw a good jab at art historians and the supposed uselessness of a humanities degree, it’s hard to argue that visual literacy is a worthless commodity at the present time. When you strengthen your visual literacy, you are more effectively able to communicate in the modern world. Plus, nothing beats the feeling of passing along the perfect meme. N

ART HISTORY (n.)

Art history is the study of art and architecture throughout time, and in tandem with human history. Essentially, it follows the development of art alongside humankind’s progress. As a field, art history has become increasingly interdisciplinary, encompassing ideas from philosophy, anthropology, psychology, and sociology. Because art is a product of human creation, studying history through the lens of art allows us to express, and thus interpret, history in a more holistic way. Fun fact: art production is older than written history, and many consider the invention of art to be the beginning of human consciousness. In the most basic terms: creating for the sake of creating is a quintessential part of being human. N

ART HOE/ART HEAUX (n.)

The term “art hoe” hit the scene c. 2015 with the Art Hoe Collective, a group of queer people of color (QPOC) interested in creating an inclusive and positive space for POC artists and creatives. Over recent years, the term has become generalized and whitewashed, and is often used to describe young girls who like art (and Kånken backpacks, I guess?). Searching the term on Urban Dictionary doesn’t really clear things up. Some definitions are extremely vague, such as “a hoe who is mysterious and chill and like hippyish and good at art.” Others just seem to throw massive shade at young girls who take an interest in art and express it on social media. And a few definitions actually give credit to the creators of the Art Hoe movement and their intention.

Aesthetically speaking, the Art Hoe movement created a very distinct visual style, using the selfie as a form of self-expression and self-empowerment. Adding splashes of color, squiggly lines, or collage elements to accent these self-portraits, allowed their creators to challenge stereotypes and express themselves freely. The fact that these images could be created using nothing more than a cell phone added to the accessibility and inclusivity of the movement. C

ART MARKET (n.)

“Art market” is a blanket term used to describe the places in which art is sold—primarily galleries, art fairs, and auction houses. To make things confusing for everyone, the art market has two categories: primary art market and secondary art market. The primary art market is when an artwork is sold for the first time: you buy a painting, painted in the year you bought it, for example. The secondary market is when an artwork that already sold in the primary market, is sold again: you decide that painting you bought years ago is tired now, so you give it to an art dealer to sell in the secondary market. In summary, my friends, a market is where stuff is sold, the art market is where art is sold. G

ART NOUVEAU (n.)

So much swirling. So much flowing.

The term “Art Nouveau” likely brings to mind super-ornate images of elegant young women with long, flowing hair in warm golden hues. And that would be accurate, Art Nouveau is an art movement characterized by many super-ornate images of elegant young women with long, flowing hair in warm golden hues.

Art Nouveau—French for “new art”—was a prominent art movement that lasted from the 1880s until World War I. Artists drew inspiration from several sources, including the Arts and Crafts movement, Japanese woodcuts (ukiyo-e), and Celtic design. The leading artists of Art Nouveau included the Czech artist Alphonse Mucha, the Austrian painter Gustav Klimt, and the Spanish architect Antoni Gaudí. They looked to the unruly natural world for ideas and incorporated organic plant forms into their designs, including swirling images of flowers and leaves. This imagery can be read as a metaphor for freedom. Nature is free and unfolds as it will. Proponents of Art Nouveau were similarly interested in breaking free from traditional art.

“Art Nouveau” = “new art”. Get it? C

ART PRACTICE (n.)

Art practice is pretty self-explanatory. It involves you, a person, doing art, in whatever form that takes. You are practicing art when you go to your figure drawing class and tell yourself: “this time I will not be afraid to draw the penis.” Your art practice is the way in which you choose to make art. It can be rigorous, as with a ceramicist who dedicates six hours daily to working in their studio. It can be specific, like that of a painter who walks a certain nature trail every month, taking photos and making sketches that later inform large-scale paintings. It can be painting some small-scale watercolor nudes a few times a year when you’re at that one friend’s family’s place in Canada, and you’ve had some wine, and you get really liberal with pubic hair colors (me). Art practice is what you make it. G

ART PREPARATOR (n.)

Handling art can be tricky business, which is why museums and galleries hire professionals called art preparators to safely move and install their art. Art preparators are in charge of preparing for an exhibition or other art installations.

While art preparators work closely with curators, the job of handling art requires specific knowledge and a slightly different skill set. Preparators’ duties range from hanging small paintings to building a specialized mount to constructing large-scale installations. These people are responsible for executing a curator’s vision and keeping the art safe at each stage of travel and installation. This work requires a good amount of physical labor that includes lifting, moving, and building, and work-related injuries are not uncommon. It may not be the most glamorous job in the art world, but art preparators work tirelessly to make sure a show is set up correctly and they are often the unsung heroes of the exhibition space. N

ARTIFACT (n.)

An artifact is a (typically old) human-made object. We are interested in artifacts because they teach us about various cultures and history. Artifacts can be works of art or they can be functional objects, such as tools.

When I think of artifacts, I often think of archaeological digs that unearth ancient clay pottery fragments—or I think of Indiana Jones stealing artifacts from places he shouldn’t be in the first place. This is a big issue with artifacts, and it’s no fault of their own. Colonial powers (see colonial art, imperialism, postcolonialism) all over the world have gone into other countries and taken shit that did not belong to them. This leaves residents of previously colonized countries looking at museums in Europe and the United States today—many of which have large collections of artifacts from other countries—asking: “hey, uh, can you give that back?” Nigeria has repeatedly asked the British Museum for the return of some 4,000 sculptures stolen by British troops in 1897. In response, the museum has thus far only agreed to send some of the sculptures back on temporary loan.

Look, artifacts are important educational tools and I appreciate their value in museum spaces. But being aware of the provenance of those artifacts is hugely important, too. Indiana Jones should not have stolen those artifacts, and museums that are being asked today to return stolen artifacts to their original countries should be a hell of a lot more accommodating. G

ARTS AND CRAFTS MOVEMENT (n.)

Detailed embroidery, stained glass, handmade furniture, ornate wallpaper—also, socialism!

It’s Great Britain in the 1860s and life is like a Charles Dickens novel. There are factories galore with smoking chimneys, cities are overrun with crowded slums, and wealth inequality is a serious problem. These may seem like strictly sociopolitical issues, but the leaders of the Arts and Crafts movement would strongly disagree. Craftsmen such as William Morris and Philip Webb believed that the quality of life in 19th-century Britain was directly connected to art and design.

The founders of the Arts and Crafts movement believed that rampant, mechanized production created a decline in design standards, and that this decline was bad for beauty, society, and humans in general. Their solution was to promote a return to traditional craftsmanship. By producing handmade wares, the craftsman would be inspired by a sense of fulfillment that had all but disappeared with mass industrialization. Have you ever built your own bookshelf or refurbished an old patio set for your backyard? Tell me you didn’t feel like a superhero afterward.

Stylistically, the Arts and Crafts movement valued naturalistic forms much like medieval Gothic design. Many of those involved in the Arts and Crafts movement later became card-carrying members of early socialist organizations, such as the Socialist League (founded by William Morris) and the Social Democratic Federation. They brought Gothic-inspired design with them, infusing socialist propaganda and political art with the Arts and Crafts aesthetic. C

ASHCAN SCHOOL (n.)

Circa 1900, a group of New York City painters united in a desire to express the raw reality of the booming metropolis in which they were living. Instead of focusing on the bougie lifestyle of Manhattanites, the members of the Ashcan School chose to highlight New York City in all its glorious grit. Ashcan School painters such as George Bellows, Robert Henri, and George Luks depicted the reality and diversity of New York City’s inhabitants and focused on subjects such as members of the working class, immigrants, nightclub performers, and boxers.

The group’s choice of subject matter received plenty of criticism at the time, even from those on the inside. Henri and Bellows illustrated for a socialist magazine called The Masses and a fellow staff member once complained that there were too many “pictures of ashcans and girls hitching up their skirts on Horatio Street.” Considering that’s exactly what the artists were going for, they adopted the name and became the Ashcan School. C

ATMOSPHERE (n.)

In science, the atmosphere is made up of the gases that surround our planet. When you’re using the term “atmosphere” in art, it’s usually to talk about the way the air, sky, and/or horizon are rendered in a work of art. You can also use “atmosphere” to describe mood or ambience in an artwork.

Consider a James McNeill Whistler painting of boats floating on dark water in a blanket of fog: I’d say this has a quiet and mysterious atmosphere, but you may see/feel a different atmosphere. It’s subjective, and that’s cool! There’s even more to unpack with atmosphere and art, so go check in with Jen to learn about atmospheric perspective. G

ATMOSPHERIC PERSPECTIVE (n.)

Also called aerial perspective, atmospheric perspective is a technique that creates the illusion of depth in painting. By using color and shading, artists can simulate the effects that the atmosphere has on colors of things seen at a distance. To experience this for yourself, go for a hike somewhere with some great views of a valley or mountain. You’ll notice that things that are far away seem hazier, with less distinct edges and outlines. That’s that atmosphere, baby! J

AUCTION HOUSE (n.)

The auction house is where auctions take place, however, this term has grown to encompass the companies who run auctions, such as Christie’s or Sotheby’s. We all know the stereotypical auctioneer, speaking way too fast for comprehension and causing the heart rates of everyone in the room to simultaneously spike. I don’t know from experience, but I’m pretty sure art auctions are slightly more tame than our shared image of an old-timey auctioneer with a hat and gavel (sorry if I’m projecting my imagination).

This is not to say that auctions are boring—in 2018, the famous and anonymous street artist Banksy debuted their latest work during a Sotheby’s auction. Moments after Balloon Girl (2002) sold for $1.4 million, it dropped through the bottom of the frame, which contained a small paper shredder, destroying half the painting. Whether a space for dramatic art stunts, or business-as-usual art sales, auction houses are an important facet of the art market and now they’re becoming nearly as spectacular as the art being sold. Now that Banksy has opened the window for wild auction-house stunts, tell me you’re not a little more interested in attending. Maybe a Jeff Koons will explode or something. That’d be cool. N

AUTOMATISM (n.)

Automatism is a method of producing artwork that relies on the unconscious mind. You might be saying “woah, slow your roll, I don’t even know how to find my unconscious mind, let alone paint with it.” Well, there are a few ways to achieve this. One common approach is by rapid stream-of-consciousness style creation—the idea being that you get all your thoughts, feelings, and urges out onto the paper as fast as you can, without intervention from your thinking brain. A prime example of this type of automatism is the action painting of Jackson Pollock.

One can argue that the practice of automatism has existed since the dawn of humankind. However, it didn’t become a big-time art method until the Surrealists made it central to their practice. The Surrealists used automatism to bring to life ideas from their unconscious mind, and then they would actively integrate those thoughts with their conscious, thinking brain. For example, Salvador Dalí’s paintings were often influenced by the contents of his dreams. When he woke up, he would sketch out aspects of his dreams using automatism, and would then use conscious understanding to bring them to life on canvas.

CENTAUR, COLLAGE, DADA

Various substances (drugs) or occult practices, such as communing with your spirit guide, can also instigate automatism. Ultimately, the idea behind the practice is that there are beautiful secrets hidden deep down below your conscious awareness and automatism can help you get ’em out. C

AVANT-GARDE (n./adj.)

You’ve probably heard the term “avant-garde” before, and you probably thought that it sounded pretentious. Pretentious or not, both the origin and meaning of avant-garde are pretty cool.

Avant-garde comes from French military speak. It means “advance guard,” referring to the troops that led the rest of the soldiers into battle. The term wasn’t applied to art until the 19th-century, when socialist politician and economic theorist Henri de Saint-Simon noted art’s ability to drive societal change forward, just like those avant-garde troops. This theory credited artists with their ability to impact society and pave the way for new theoretical and political ideas.

With the progression of art history, avant-garde has come to apply to various art movements and artists who pushed the boundaries in some way or another. People often referred to Cubism as avant-garde because it innovated the way forms were depicted and perceived. Dada was considered avant-garde for its rejection of artistic norms and critique of capitalism.

Avant-garde is not a fixed term, it is not constrained by time or by place because, when you get down to it, avant-garde celebrates all that is innovative and challenging. Now, of course, this is a subjective label. But at its core, I think it’s a badass term that acknowledges art’s power to impact society, politics, history, and more. G

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BAROQUE (n./adj.)

It’s bold, strange, sexy, theatrical, and emotional. It’s the Baroque, baby, and I love it. Baroque art is known for its dramatic, dynamic, evocative, and rich qualities, which stood in contrast to the more formulaic and simple aesthetic preferences of the earlier Renaissance. Baroque style developed in Italy over the course of the 17th century.

Architecture from this period displayed undulating curves, elaborate arches, twisting forms, and a variety of rich materials. Sculpture was no longer static but captured a moment in time as sculpted forms gesticulated, ran, grasped, embraced and fought. Paintings were theatrical and stimulating as they conveyed scenes from mythology and the Bible. Baroque art was full of bold ambition and aimed to appeal to the senses, coaxing emotional reactions out of viewers. To that I say, hell yes, Baroque, coax these emotions. G

BASILICA (n.)

A basilica is a large oblong hall or building with double colonnades and a semicircular apse. This building was traditionally used in ancient Rome as a court of law or for public assemblies, and often served as the main meeting place for the people of the town. After the fall of Rome, basilicas were converted into churches, and examples such as the Basilica Ulpia (completed c. 112 CE) were used as the architectural prototype for the layout of new Christian churches.

Today, pilgrims often visit basilicas to be in the presence of Catholic relics, thought to hold mystical properties. These objects bring large crowds of pious visitors to basilicas all over the world. With this in mind, ease of circulation is crucial for a successful basilica. One of the most famous is the Basilica of La Virgen de Guadalupe (Our Lady of Guadalupe), which set a record in 2011 by receiving 6.1 million pilgrims over two days for the anniversary of Our Lady of Guadalupe in Mexico. The basilica remains an enduring architectural solution for the need to house the devout multitudes. J

BAUHAUS (n.)

A German school of art and design, the Bauhaus was founded in 1919 by the architect Walter Gropius, on the guiding principle of creating a Gesamtkunstwerk (a total work of art). This was huge for modern art, design, and architecture, and the Bauhaus became one of the most iconic names in modernism.

Gropius designed a curriculum that took students through a foundational course (Vorkurs) that focused on promoting New Objectivity. Theo van Doesburg, who introduced De Stijl ideas from the Netherlands, called this the machine aesthetic. Students learned color theory based on that of German Expressionism, and architectural theory derived from the philosophies of Russian Constructivism. Over the years, competing ideas concerning the correct type of modernism to teach caused strife among instructors, students, and the various directors of the school.

The Bauhaus relocated twice, from Weimar to Dessau, then from Dessau to Berlin. With each relocation a new approach to modernism developed. Eventually, the school was shut down in 1933 by the Nazis. As many of us know, Nazis famously ruin everything, and the Bauhaus was no exception. They denounced the school for being “un-German” and producing “degenerate art” favored and influenced by “the Jew”. The closure of the Bauhaus was a sad day in the modern era, however, many artists, architects, and designers trained in the Bauhaus style would emigrate from Germany to the United States. In the U.S., they pioneered what came to be known as the International Style and helped spread modernism around the world. J

BEAUX ARTS (n./adj.)

Beaux arts is French for “fine art.” The term refers to a style of late-19th-/early-20th- century architecture that originated at the École des Beaux-Arts (School of Fine Arts) in Paris, France, and was brought back to the United States by American architects who studied there.

Basically, Americans wanted to show off all the money they made during the Industrial Revolution, and beaux arts was the perfect style to flaunt all that wealth and prosperity. So, many big, important public buildings were built in a classical style that referenced the ancient Greeks and Romans. The San Francisco Opera House and Manhattan’s Grand Central Terminal are two prime examples. C

BIO ART (n.)

Bio art is a super fascinating practice of creating art using living organisms.

You heard me right, we’re talking about art that is alive—art created from living tissues, bacteria, and organisms. By using living organisms as an art medium, bio artists bring attention to rapidly developing biotechnology and how it can affect society.

In 2000, contemporary artist Eduardo Kac presented GFP Bunny to the art world. Kac used genetic engineering to inject an albino rabbit with jellyfish DNA so that the bunny glowed bright green when exposed to the right light. While this art act seems to have been performed with love and care for the bun in question, this type of art-making poses a whole mess of ethical questions. There’s much debate concerning when, or if, a material is considered living, and deciding which living materials are cool to work with is highly controversial. Bio art is a fascinating example of how art can grow and change using contemporary technologies. I am curious to see how it develops, but Kac better keep his hands off my pet rabbit. C

THE BLUE RIDER (n.)

Founded by German Expressionist painters Wassily Kandinsky and Franz Marc in Munich, in 1911, Der Blaue Reiter (The Blue Rider) movement strove to promote the spiritual value in painting and to explore the psychological power of color. The movement was named for a painting by Kandinsky titled Der Blaue Reiter (1903), which depicts a rider wearing blue on a white horse running through an open field. Kandinsky associated color with music and believed some colors, such as blue, had positive effects on viewers. The movement’s cofounder, Franz Marc, was distressed with the state of humanity, and found animals a purer subject in art. The movement is the synthesis of the two men’s interests. Many of the paintings from this period depict vivid colors, animals, and scenes from nature, as members of the group felt alienated from the increasingly industrial world around them.

The movement was looser in structure than other movements in art history. It consisted of just five core members and lasted only a few years. Marc and Kandinsky wrote a collection of essays on art pertaining to Der Blaue Reiter, but they did not control the individual style of its members. The unifying force that drove these artists was a belief in art’s spiritual potency. Despite its short run, Der Blaue Reiter was a key part of German Expressionism at large. G

BRONZE CASTING (n./v.)

The ancient Greeks were some crafty sculptors working in marble and bronze. Bronze, in particular, was difficult to make large sculptures out of. The metal was expensive and volatile to work with, often warping as it cooled. But this did not deter the ancient Greeks! They devised a way to make hollow casts of bronze using wax.

ACROPOLIS, CONSTRUCTIVISM

Bronze casting meet lost-wax technique.

First, the sculptor makes a clay model of the intended bronze sculpture. Let’s say, a muscly guy draped in grapevines. The sculptor forms a master mold around grapevine guy using clay. Then, grapevine guy’s master mold is broken into sections so that each body part can be made separately. This is easier and prevents metal breakage and distortion. Next, the sculptor pours beeswax into the mold. Once cooled, this provides hollow wax models in the shape of grapevine guy’s head, arm, leg, and so on. Now the sculptor adds details to the wax—pouty lips or curly hair. Yet another clay mold is formed around each wax body part and liquid clay poured into the hollow inside of the wax. Then the entire clay and wax mold is fired, melting away the wax and creating a mold for hot bronze to be poured into. This lost-wax technique creates clay molds for bronze casting—a process that turns our grapevine man into a real bronze man. G

BRUTALISM (n.)

Massive blocky buildings made of concrete.

The Brutalist style of architecture arose from early-20th-century modernist sensibilities and had its day in the sun in the 1950s. This architectural style, characterized by straight lines, unusual geometric shapes, and a general sense of heaviness, fell out of favor in the 1970s when it became widely criticized as unwelcoming and inhuman (in other words, brutal). C

BUTTRESS (n./v.)

Not only is buttress fun to say, it’s also an interesting architectural feature. It refers to a brick or stone structure against the outside of a wall—generally of a Romanesque basilica or cathedral. Like a good bra, a buttress’s main job is to provide support. In order to build tall, sturdy structures, architects had to solve the problem of the roof pushing the walls outward and inevitably knocking them down (you know, physics and whatnot). In order to fix this problem, they would buttress the walls with heavy supports against the outside to keep them upright (anyone who has built a pillow fort is nodding along right now). As humans became more ambitious, and cathedrals grew to greater heights, buttressing evolved alongside.

Flying buttresses—or arch buttresses—are the same structures, just taken up a notch. During the Gothic period in parts of Europe, they literally raised the roof—cathedrals got taller, walls got thinner, and everyone got really into stained glass. All these factors complicated construction and meant standard buttressing practices wouldn’t cut it anymore. In order to support less stable walls, builders invented flying buttresses, which enabled them to stack arch-shaped buttresses on top of one another. This distributed the weight out and down. Unlike their predecessors on the ground, flying buttresses were further from the wall they supported and more delicate in their construction. Don’t get any ideas about these being dainty or decorative features though—without the trusty buttress and its support, building Gothic churches such as Chartes Cathedral, in France, would not have been possible. N

BYOBU SCREEN (n.)

A byobu screen is a Japanese folding screen. Byobu translates as “wind wall.” Back in the 8th century BCE, in Japan, these screens were designed to help block out cold drafts and maintain heat by sectioning off rooms. With time, byobu screens became more popular and grew in size, often consisting of multiple panels. Function and design merge in byobu screens, as artists have been painting them for centuries. They often depict landscapes, but figurative scenes and calligraphy sometimes feature as well. By Japan’s Edo period (1603–1867), samurais would show off their status by owning big byobu screens with elaborate paintings by notable artists of the day, sometimes even covered in precious gold leaf. If I were a lady living during the Edo period and a samurai invited me back to his house to see his byobu screen collection, I'd be into it. G

BYZANTINE ART (n.)

The Byzantine Empire existed from 330 to 1453 CE. A continuation of the Roman Empire in the East, its citizens still saw themselves as Romans and so the Byzantine style developed as a combination of Eastern and Western influences. Emperor Constantine decided to change the name of the capital from Byzantium to Constantinople because he was clearly not one for subtlety.

Byzantine art was all about evoking the ethereality of the heavens. Its purpose was to transport viewers to a heavenly realm where they could feel a connection to God. In order to achieve this, the Byzantines produced many mosaic works that glittered and sparkled in candlelight. No better example exists of Byzantine architecture than the church-turned-mosque-turned-museum (you still with me?): Hagia Sophia. Emperor Justinian had this church built in 537 in modern-day Istanbul, Turkey (Constantinople at the time of construction), and the structure is most famous for its large, heavenly dome.

In order to bring the ethereal realm down to the earthly, Byzantine artisans created the illusion that the dome was floating, achieved through strategic placement of windows and a helluva lot of gold decoration. When the Ottomans overtook Constantinople in 1453, rather than destroying Hagia Sophia, they converted the church into a mosque. Nowadays, neither Christianity nor Islam can claim the building for themselves, as it was converted into a museum in 1935. N

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CALLIGRAPHY (n.)

Calligraphy combines writing with visual art. Calligraphers handwrite and carefully design letters, applying them with brushes or broad-tipped instruments, just as a painter might. The practice goes way back and its consistent influence across the world is pretty amazing.

The practice of calligraphy can be traced back to 200 BCE in China, and Chinese calligraphy is still widely practiced today. Islamic calligraphy was first used in the Quran in the 6th century CE and soon developed into multiple distinct styles.

Due to its reliance on the written word, calligraphy is often overlooked as a visual artform. However, as we have seen with contemporary graphic design and text-based art, the written word can function as a visual element. Bringing words to life with stylized letters and a practiced hand is what calligraphy is all about. I’ve always been fascinated by calligraphy and have meant to take a class at some point—I’ll sign up for one after this book is done, hold me to it. G

CAMERA OBSCURA (n.)

Thousands of years before the invention of cameras as we know them, there were predecessors known as camera obscuras. For those like myself who never formally learned Latin, that translates to “dark room,” though a camera obscura is much closer in concept to an actual camera than the red-lit space that comes to mind. One major difference between a camera obscura and a camera, is that a camera obscura projects a temporary image. They can range in size from a small box to an entire room. In order to make a camera obscura, you need a very dark space—be it box or room—with one pinhole to admit light. An inverted image of whatever is well-lit on the outside of the pinhole is projected onto the adjacent wall inside the dark space.

Originally, camera obscuras were used to view solar eclipses without damaging the eyes, but eventually some smart and curious people figured out that it’s a fantastic way to project a scene or object in order to achieve a nearly perfect sketch for a painting. (If you’ve ever used a projector to trace a preliminary sketch on a canvas, you know what I mean). Much like modern-day cameras, camera obscuras kept getting smaller—i.e. more portable and convenient. The technology advanced as well. During the 16th century, a small mirror was placed inside to reflect the image right-side-up and eventually a convex lens was added to the pinhole. Leo da Vinci became slightly obsessed (as he did with many things) with camera obscuras and what they could tell us about optical theory, and our boy Caravaggio was believed to have used a camera obscura to sketch the form of his figures in some of his paintings. N

CAMP (n./adj.)

Bad taste. Irony. Banality. Artifice. Frivolity. These are just some of the aspects that build the backbone of camp.

So, what is camp? It is hard to wrap up with a pretty bow (I mean, we can, that would certainly be in the spirit of camp). Camp can be thought of as an aesthetic style or sensibility that disrupts ideas of what is considered high society and high art. It can also be considered a kind of social practice that many subscribe to through fashion and performative identity for the purpose of entertainment. (Take RuPaul’s Drag Race, for example, a TV show in which the American drag queen searches for America’s next drag superstar.) Elements of camp have been identified in popular culture dating back to the turn of the 20th century, but it was not until Susan Sontag wrote Notes on “Camp” in 1964 that the term came to describe a cohesive aesthetic.

In many academic readings it is asserted that camp is not identified with any specific group, but I would argue that you cannot discuss camp without discussing the queer community that birthed and raised it, complete with massive, peroxided beehive and feather boa. Entertainers such as Divine, Liberace, and Cher paved the way for an anti-academic take on pop culture that was largely driven by gay fanfare. Pop art giants such as Andy Warhol (whose queerness is often erased or downplayed) made huge contributions to the camp aesthetic. In 2019, the Met Gala had camp as its theme, with no mention of its queer roots and history (you blew it, guys). Ultimately, camp is not necessarily making fun of culture, but rather making fun out of it. Camp deserves several theses and dissertations, which we unfortunately do not have room for, so consider this your primer, darling, and get lost. J

CANNIBALIZE (v.)

Wait, how is this an art term? Well, hear me out. We’re talking about the concept of cannibalism, which became a powerful metaphorical tool and approach to modernism for a group of Brazilian modernists in the early 20th century (see Antropofagia). The idea was that, as a trope, the act of human cannibalism marked the line between savagery and civilization—a line that became a very important cornerstone of colonial thought. By reclaiming the act of cannibalism, historically an act that denotes difference, Brazilian modernists cannibalized European culture to create a hybrid identity. This identity celebrated difference as a central concept in defining Latin American identities (I know, its complex stuff).

The artist Tarsila do Amaral has long been considered the first modernist Brazilian cannibal. Her painting, Abaporu (1928), depicts a stylized figure with massive feet seated next to a cactus with a lemon-slice sun in the background. She gave it to her husband, Oswald de Andrade, as a birthday gift. He was so taken aback by what he saw in the work as a devouring of European styles, that he gave it its title (which means “man eats” in an indigenous language). He wrote his Manifesto Antropófago that same year. J

CANON (n.)

Canon, not to be confused with artillery that shoots cannonballs, is a word that refers to what is generally accepted as “the best” of a given subject. The phrase is naturally biased, as “the best” ramen noodle place in the city in your opinion, is likely to be different from someone else’s. However, much of art history is defined by people claiming such and such to be a great master, or specifying which qualities make the most beautiful sculptures, or compiling lists of the leading artists from a given period, and so on.

Since the word “canon” derives from the Greek word kanōn, meaning “rule,” let’s look at an example of canon from ancient Greek art history. The ancient Greeks believed that a statue needed to have the correct proportions in order to be aesthetically beautiful. To this end, Greek sculptor Polykleitos wrote a treatise in which he provided a formula to create the perfectly proportioned statue. His work on how to make an ideal, sculpted male nude is considered a canon in art history. Which is why there are so many chiseled nude dudes in your art history 101 textbook. G

CANVAS (n.)

Stretch it! Paint it! Dye it!

Canvas refers to a woven material made from some type of yarn. Commonly used yarns include cotton, flax, and hemp. It’s pretty routine to use canvas as your base in two-dimensional art. Painting on canvas is more common than drawing, but don’t let anyone tell you how to live your life. You draw on that canvas if your heart so desires.

DOME, ORPHISM, ROSE WINDOW

Painters usually treat their canvases with a layer of gesso, which makes the colors a little brighter. Alternatively, an untreated/unprimed canvas—that is, with no gesso—can soak up more paint, making for a hazy effect. Abstract Expressionist painter Helen Frankenthaler experimented with leaving her canvases untreated and then staining them with pure color. Through this staining technique, she was able to achieve subtle shifts in tone and opacity in her paintings. Canvas even works great for collages since it’s stronger and sturdier than paper—meaning it can hold more stuff. N

CARAVAGGISTI (n.)

The Caravaggisti were a group of artists who were influenced by, and painted in the style of, Baroque artist Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio. Caravaggio left a legacy of dramatic paintings known for their stark contrast between light and dark, also known as tenebrism. This style was full of emotional potency, as certain figures would stand out from their mysterious, shadowed backgrounds when illuminated with painted light. It’s moody, it’s mysterious, it’s hip, so no surprise other artists wanted to emulate Caravaggio’s style. Numerous Caravaggisti painters emerged in Caravaggio’s native Italy, including one of the Art History Babes’ collective faves, Artemisia Gentileschi. However, Caravaggisti were spread widely across the whole of Europe.

You may be thinking: so, they just copied Caravaggio, what’s so great about that? Well there’s a difference between painting in a style similar to Caravaggio and making art pretending to be an actual Caravaggio. Caravaggisti took certain techniques and inspiration from Caravaggio, but they also had their own unique styles and worked as autonomous artists. When looking at a painting by a Caravaggisti, the main thing you’ll notice is the dramatic treatment of light. Caravaggio certainly made such effects popular, but by no means owned the rights to them (something I’m sure he’d be annoyed to hear—that hot head). G

CARRARA MARBLE (n.)

I’m obsessed with Carrara marble. That may sound like a weird thing to be so fascinated by, but I’m about to convince you why it’s crazy cool.

Earth science time! Marble forms with the help of dead sea creatures. A long, long time ago, certain bodies of water on Earth evaporated, leaving behind the crusty shells of dead ocean dwellers, which were very rich in the mineral calcite. Calcite forms limestone. When limestone is buried under tons of rocks, the pressure and heat transforms the limestone into marble.

Marble can be found all over the world and comes in a variety of colors—from rose to rust—depending on what else gets mixed into the limestone-to-marble process. For example, clay and iron oxide make for darker marbles. Carrara marble is a white, blue-gray marble that forms from pure limestone—meaning there isn’t any clay or iron oxide getting in there.

The Carrara marble quarry is nestled in the Apuan Alps, north of Tuscany, in Italy, and it is a gorgeous and mineral-rich place. You’ve probably seen Carrara marble listed as the material for famous works such as, say, a sculpture by Michelangelo. The ancient Romans were all about Carrara marble, transporting heaping hunks of it back to Rome to construct temples and sculptures. Renaissance artists and architects coveted the marble for their projects (see Italian Renaissance).

Carrara marble is the only marble of its kind and the Italians continue to quarry it and send it all over the world today. The supply of the stuff seems endless when you look at aerial photos of the quarry with its carefully carved steps and deep, cavernous spaces. See? Crazy cool. G

CARTOGRAPHY (n.)

Cartography is the study and practice of making maps. It is one of the many places where art and science meet.

The earliest recorded cartography was practiced by the Babylonians who carved geometric shapes into clay tablets to represent their environment (often intentionally leaving out the land of their neighbors, the Persians and ancient Egyptians). Maps have since gone through many incarnations before arriving at the satellites-are-always-watching-you, hyper-accurate maps of today.

Often thought of as objective, scientific objects, maps actually have much more in common with art objects. In being small-scale, two-dimensional things representing very large-scale three-dimensional things, all maps are a little bit wrong (unless maybe you ask a flat-earther). Maps very often misrepresent scale—for example, world maps exaggerate certain continents over others—and they are most definitely influenced by the agenda of the map maker.

Throughout history, cartographers have created maps in alignment with spiritual, economic, and political purpose. Many of them have also infused their works with their own aesthetic choices, ranging from illustrations of mythical beasts to descriptions of landmasses that simply don’t exist. See agnotology for more on all of that.

Maps represent how we think about the world, and ultimately, our place in it. C

CARTOON (n.)

It may surprise you to learn that the cartoon originated with our pals Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo during the Italian Renaissance. Well, the word did at least. Carta is Italian for “paper” and the suffix “-one” means large. Cartone = large sheet of paper. Da Vinci and Michelangelo would make preparatory drawings on large sheets of paper with the intent of transferring their images to a painting surface. Over time, the use of the word “cartoon” morphed to describe a printed illustration with exaggerated characteristics, often with satirical overtones. This includes everything from the political cartoons of 18th-century England, to the “funnies” in your local newspaper today.

With the advent of animation, the cartoon became your fave Saturday morning TV program. Bugs Bunny, Mickey Mouse, and Bart Simpson are all cartoon characters. So, we can use the word “cartoon” to describe a number of different things, historically speaking. While the development of the cartoon is not particularly linear, this bit of info will come in handy when charting the visual history of Leonardo da Vinci: from Renaissance master to Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtle. C

CARYATID (n.)

The ancient Greeks seriously loved to sculpt the human body. So, it didn’t take long for them to morph the female body with another of their great loves, the column. A caryatid is a sculptural female figure who doubles as a supporting column for a given structure.

Women in ancient Greece wore what’s called a peplos, a sort of tunic dress with lots of folds. It offered the ideal clothing style for translation into the sculpted, columnar form. Take, for example, one of the caryatids from the Erechtheion—an ancient temple (421–406 BCE) at the Acropolis in Athens, Greece—where there are a total of six caryatids supporting a porch. On the head of each girl sits a capital, which functions to help mediate the weight bearing down on the column.

Look closely at one of the caryatids and you can almost feel the burden of the mass crushing her head. Yet, as a woman sculpted from stone, her face is stoic, almost serene, as she bears the literal weight of a building on her shoulders. Instead of widening her stance to handle the immense weight, or crouching beneath it, she simply juts out a hip and knee, placing all the weight on her other leg. Sculpting one of her legs as rigid allows the folds of her dress to take on the look of a typical column, with straight vertical lines running down from the hip to the feet. This caryatid is both woman and column, carrying literally tons of weight on her shoulders—girl power. G

CATALOG (n./v.)

“Catalog” is the word for an organized list of items. Art catalogs contain—you guessed it—lists of art! They generally take the form of books and accompany private collections and exhibitions. A catalog offers a way to remember an exhibition for years to come, and who doesn’t love a good souvenir?

As a bibliophile, I’m always tempted by a well-made catalog. While many take the form of a luxurious book, it’s also common to create something more cost-efficient. Oftentimes, artists will print catalogs on cheap paper in the form of pamphlets or zines to provide a free, or low-cost option for smaller shows. Catalogs also offer supplemental information about a show, including essays, photographs, or wall text from the exhibit. N

CATALYST (n.)

What does the word “catalyst” have to do with art? Well, a catalyst is a thing that can cause a change or reaction of some kind.

Art can certainly be a catalyst. I’m embarrassed to admit this, but I watched the reality TV dating game show, The Bachelorette, this past season (it was on and I just got sucked in!) and there was a big, emotional art-as-catalyst moment for the bachelorette. She was in a museum, waiting for one of her contestants boyfriends to show up for their private date in a museum (goals). Anyways, she’s looking at a painting of St. Catherine, who is reading the Bible and holding a sword while men are off fighting in the distance behind her. The bachelorette starts crying because she feels she can relate to the martyred saint and later sends her date home. Although this made me want to laugh and scream at the same time, it’s undeniable that the painting of St. Catherine was an emotional catalyst for the bachelorette.

On a more serious note, art can be a catalyst for societal and political change. The Women’s March on January 21, 2017 saw millions of protestors in streets across the world wearing knitted “pussy hats,” visual markers of a demand for change. Artists making work that draws attention to global issues, such as climate change, are part of a call for action. Art is always tied to political movements, uprisings, demonstrations, and protests: all of these events are catalysts.

The art world gets its fair share of disses from people in politics—people who don’t seem to recognize art’s role in political change or take it very seriously. But every major sociopolitical movement has involved art in some integral way, making art an absolute catalyst. G

CAVE ART (n.)

Picture it: you are in the Paleolithic era, about 40,000 years ago, and you are entering a dark, deep cave. It’s your coming of age ceremony, and your tribal elders are leading you deeper and deeper into the cave to the sacred cavern, your torch the only source of light. You finally arrive at the central cavern and you find that the walls are covered in paintings of massive animals. The flickering of your torch makes them appear to move. Maybe your elder instructs you to imbibe some kind of hallucinatory drink, and now those animals are really moving (see psychedelic art). You have just been initiated into adulthood, and now you, too, are allowed to see the sacred paintings that hold the guarded knowledge—knowledge that is lost to us 40,000 years later.

Cave art, also called parietal art, refers to paintings, drawings, etchings, carvings, and pecked artwork on the interior of rock shelters and caves. These artworks are extremely old and are found all over the world, dating all the way back to the Middle Paleolithic era (70,000—35,000 BCE). These works could be relatively simple geometric petroglyphs to more elaborate figural representations.

The Chauvet Cave in southern France (c. 32,000 BCE) is a prime example of this kind of art. Gigantic animal paintings fill the caves, and they’re so expertly rendered that archaeologists can identify species of animals that have since gone extinct. Strangely, human figures are almost never depicted, and when they do appear, they’re usually miniscule in comparison to the animals. Theories abound about possible interpretations of these images, many of which suggest that cave paintings may have been a vital part of the ceremonial life of early humans. Perhaps the scenario I described at the beginning of this entry isn’t too far off from fact, but the lack of a written record from this era leaves us, well, in the dark. J

CENTAUR (n.)

Half-man, half-horse, this mythological beast is all attitude. Stories of centaurs abound in ancient Greek mythology and are described as being as wild and uncontrollable as untamed horses, thereby wreaking havoc on the civilized world of humans. These unruly creatures have several origin stories, but the most popular one involves an instance of the Greek god Zeus meddling with the lives of humans, a favorite pastime of his.

The story goes that, one day, Zeus invited the human Ixion, king of the Lapith tribe, to a dinner party on Mount Olympus. However, instead of being grateful to his host, Ixion grew lustful for Hera, Zeus’s wife. This was a no-no. When Zeus found out about Ixion’s advances, he concocted a plan to trick Ixion into sleeping with the cloud nymph Nephele, whom Zeus had molded into the shape of Hera. From this weird union, the deformed Centaurus came to be. Poor Centaurus was shunned by both humans and gods alike, and took refuge on Mount Pelion, where he mated with the Magnesian mares. Thus, the race of the centaurs was born.

Several theories relate to the true origins of this particular hybrid monster. The most common is that the idea arose from the meeting of the non-horse-riding Aegean peoples with horse-riding nomadic tribes from the east—one of many examples in Greek mythology of crafting monsters out of “barbarian” intruders. Other interpretations suggest that the centaur may symbolize the internal struggle of humanity between good and evil, civilized and barbaric, propriety and immorality. One thing is for certain: you don’t want to invite these guys to your parties. J

CERAMIC (n.)

In chemistry, a ceramic refers to an inorganic, nonmetallic, often crystalline oxide, nitride, or carbide material. This can include all kinds of materials, but for our less scientific purposes, we’ll focus on clay and porcelain. Ceramics are objects made from these materials and can range from clay pottery for your garden to the fine china displayed in that antique cabinet, never to be used for anything other than looking at, ever. J

CHANCE AESTHETICS (n.)

Chance aesthetics are typically associated with Dada, and rightfully so, because chance aesthetics totally undermine the intent of the artist. Forget your artistic vision—we’re leaving this up to the powers that be! Nothing matters. Go with the flow, bro.

A prime example of chance aesthetics is Marcel Duchamp’s 3 Standard Stoppages (1913–14). This work evolved from a combination of Duchamp’s artistic intent and a totally unpredictable element of chance. Duchamp dropped three pieces of thread—of the same length and from the same height—onto three pieces of canvas. He then attached the thread to the canvases exactly as they fell. The resulting visual aesthetic of the artwork was completely due to the chance nature of the fall.

So, any time an artwork actively incorporates a guiding element that is beyond the control of the artist, that piece is using chance aesthetics. Taking chances is cool! But stick to low-consequence chances such as dropping strings—nothing that might put you in mortal danger. Then again, do what you want. I’m not your boss. C

CHARCOAL (n.)

On a chemical level, charcoal is what you get when you remove water from animal or plant products, in order to produce a black carbon residue (full disclosure: I had a very hard time in high school chemistry). Much more in my wheelhouse, is what comes after charcoal is produced: a lightweight, dry material pressed into a writing utensil, perfect for drawing or sketching. Charcoal lends itself to sketchy impressions—don’t expect to achieve precise, clean lines. It’s messy as hell, and between its dark color and powdery fragility, you’re sure to get it all over your hands—if not your face, clothes, belongings, soul, etc. N

CHERUB (n.)

Despite what you may think, a cherub is not a cute, chubby, arrow-wielding baby boy similar to the modern-day conception of cupid. No, instead it is a super-intense mythological hybrid angel creature. Over time, we have culturally referred to putti as cherubim and, as a result, the meaning of the word cherub has morphed and changed … because that’s how language works.

ABSTRACTION, ARCHAIC, INSTAGRAM ART

According to the Bible, a cherub is a member of one of the highest angelic orders. It has four faces—one of a man, one of a lion, one of an ox, and one of an eagle. It also has four wings covered in eyes (always watching you) and its appearance is “like burning coals of fire.” In other words, you probably don’t want to mess with cherubs. C

CHIAROSCURO (n.)

Chiaroscuro is an Italian word: chiaro meaning “bright” or “clear” and oscuro meaning “dark” or “obscure.” It relates to a technique that focuses on the contrast between light and dark elements in a composition, and how this contrast can enhance a sense of space and create heightened drama. A solid way to visualize chiaroscuro from the comfort of your home is to pull out your phone and turn the contrast aaall the way up on one of your photos.

Both Leonardo da Vinci and Caravaggio implemented chiaroscuro in their work. One of my favorite examples of chiaroscuro is Caravaggio’s c. 1610 painting David with the Head of Goliath. The painting depicts a young David, holding up the head of Goliath, still disturbingly locked in an expression of shock. It is so dramatic. The drama is enhanced by chiaroscuro: the background is dark and indistinct, but David’s torso, sword, and half his face are cast in light as he holds up Goliath’s decapitated head, also partially illuminated.

With the progression of art history, chiaroscuro continues to be a popular choice for artists wanting to create depth and/or intensity in their work. In a move that may have shocked Da Vinci and Caravaggio, there’s chiaroscuro photography as well now—check it out, it’s stunning. G

CHINOISERIE (n.)

Think japonisme but Chinese! You didn’t think the problematic romanticizing of East Asian cultures by Europeans was limited to just the Japanese, did you? Chinoiserie is the European interpretation and imitation of Chinese and East Asian artistic traditions, especially in the decorative arts, garden design, architecture, literature, theater, and music. As a style, chinoiserie is related to Rococo. Paintings are similarly full of pastels and frivolity, only everyone is wearing Chinese costume (I cringe). Porcelain, jade, pagodas, folding screens, and luxurious wallpapers were all the rage for the trendiest Europeans.

Why did it happen? Chinoiserie is just one of many aspects of the European fascination with the “exotic” world of the East, due to Europe’s newly acquired access to Eastern cultures through expanded trade with East Asia—and especially China—in the 18th century (see Orientalism). The Western world has historically experienced problems when it comes to being exposed to non-Western (read: non-European) civilizations. The result has usually been horrific violence and death, but there was some art, too. J

CLASSICISM (n.)

Classicism can be understood as an aesthetic and philosophical attitude. The term emerged in Europe during the 17th century, during the Renaissances—Italian and Northern—which are largely considered times of rebirth of classical style. Classicists put antiquity on a pedestal (probably a Corinthian one), and sought to replicate classical principles in their own art, architecture, and literature. Classical art draws aesthetic inspiration from its ancient pals, including a preference for harmonious design. A good example of this lies in use of classical architecture to represent traditional modes of power. The stereotypical facade that comes to mind involves a looming stairway up to white marble columns lining the front of a stately structure, possibly with a fancy frieze above its entrance. Reminiscent of the Parthenon of ancient Greece, this architectural style is often used for government buildings where the intention is to command authority. N

CLAY POTTERY (n.)

Clay comes from the ground. When combined with the correct ingredients, it becomes moldable and can be turned into pottery. The three main types of clay are porcelain, earthenware, and stoneware.

Because clay comes from the ground, it has been commonly used by civilizations all over the world, going back as far as the Neolithic period. Between 10,000 and 2000 BCE, long before the pottery wheel was invented, people in China used coiling techniques to make vases. I’m pretty sure everyone who has ever taken a beginner ceramics class has made a coil pot. You roll out a long, clay snake and then you start wrapping it around a flat base, until you run out of snake—boom: coil pot. That method has truly stood the test of time. After the invention of the potter’s wheel, sometime around 3000 BCE, throwing on a wheel made the molding process quicker, easier, and more efficient. Clay pottery has remained popular over the years because it’s practical, sturdy, and readily available. N

COLLABORATION (n.)

You know what they say … “collaboration is the spice of life.” And if they don’t, they should. Collaboration is when two or more people come together to create something. Likely, you’ve heard of musical collaborations—Queen and David Bowie, Kanye West and Jay Z, or Tim McGraw and Nelly (remember that strange time?).

In art, it’s generally when two or more artists work together on a project, but it can be expanded to include curators collaborating, as well as artists collaborating with people from other industries. It’s more than just working together—the word “collaborate” implies that the parties involved are partners, with equal voice.

One of the hottest collaborations in art was between American artists Andy Warhol and Jean-Michel Basquiat. They created a series of paintings from 1980 to 1986, where Warhol’s pop art aesthetic and Basquiat’s graffiti-style painting came together in dialogue. A young Basquiat was reportedly thrilled to work with one of his artistic icons, and a business-savvy Warhol knew that his declining status could only be elevated by working with the current rising star of the New York art scene.

Thanks in large part to good ole capitalism, we often see this in the form of artists collaborating with corporations. Louis Vuitton has worked with a ton of well-known artists including Warhol, and contemporary artists Takashi Murakami and Yayoi Kusama. N

COLLAGE (n./v.)

Remember that giant tub of old magazines in the corner of your elementary school classroom? The one that got pulled out for every project? Science, math, art, social studies—there wasn’t a single subject that couldn’t be represented by cutting out disjointed images from an array of magazines and gluing them onto a piece of construction paper. Well, whether you were aware of it or not, you were creating a collage.

The word “collage” can refer to both the technique and the resultant artwork in which various elements (paper, photographs, fabric, etc.) are intentionally arranged on a surface. Common collage technique involves overlapping these elements. This can allow for an obvious and intentional juxtaposition of images or mediums. For example, you could paste an image of Homer Simpson’s face on the body of a religious official and create a new meaning for both of those images (I don’t know exactly what it would be, but people would probably be pissed about it). Collage relies heavily on the appropriation of images and is a powerful means of exploring the images that we consume every day. C

COLLECTOR (n.)

Quite simply, anyone who collects something is a collector. Art collectors obviously collect art, and these private collections look wildly different from one to the next. While collections often have a general theme tying them together, cohesion isn’t necessary, and some can be quite diverse. Themes include era, country of origin, specific objects, specific artists, and so on. Collectors, like patrons, can support an artist and help to propel their career by promoting their work to their hoity-toity friends. Collectors can even take steps to ensure that their collection stays intact by selling or donating it to an museum or gallery.

You could decide that you’re going to collect yellow art, or rocks, or Nan Goldin photographs (alright, big shot), or literally whatever you so please. Pablo “problematic” Picasso collected African artifacts, actor Seth Rogen collects vintage ashtrays, and our babe Ginny’s working up a nice record collection. Collections often say more about the person collecting than the objects themselves. Picasso engaged in primitivism, Rogen is a cannabis connoisseur, and Gin is just a cool gal who likes good music. Find whatever it is that brings you joy, and collect on, my friends. N

COLONIAL ART (n.)

We all know that colonialism is harsh and ugly and bad. Well, I guess we don’t all know that. There are academics who believe colonialism was a force for good in the world. I don’t have enough space in this one entry to fight them on that (catch me outside), but the stance at the Art History Babes is that many aspects of colonialism were awful, and it’s silly to pretend otherwise. Nonetheless, there are certain periods of time in world history that are characterized by colonial rule. And during those times, art was made, just as it was in every other period in human history.

“Colonial Art” is a term used to describe art that depicts colonial expeditions and colonial rule, made by colonizers for colonizers (literally, a lot of American colonial art features portraits of powerful white dudes and their families). The term is most commonly used in reference to American and Spanish colonial art. American colonial art encompasses art created by 17th- and 18th-century colonists of North America. It is Eurocentric in style, reflecting English and Dutch art of the time. American colonial art shows little to no influence of indigenous art styles. Spanish colonial art, on the other hand, is super Catholic and reflects a merging of cultures via globalization. Spanish colonial art encompasses art produced in the Spanish colonies of the New World from the early 16th to early 19th centuries. Over time, Spanish colonial art came to include work produced by indigenous artists.

Since so much of it was awful, we are currently in an intense period of trying to untangle the mess made by colonialism. This is often referred to as postcolonialism —I’ll pass it to Jen for more on that. C

COLOR-FIELD PAINTING (n.)

I am a color fiend, and if you are anything like me, you can easily get lost in color swatches, spending hours playing with side-by-side combinations. Color is eye-catching by nature, and it has been scientifically proven to affect our moods, thoughts, and feelings.

ART DECO, SPHINX

In the late 1940s, an art style developed that took advantage of this fact, with the intent of achieving transcendence through color (intense right?). The Color Field movement, a subset of Abstract Expressionism, found meaning in color and simple forms instead of symbols. Mark Rothko didn’t define himself as a color-field painter, nonetheless, he is typically considered the big daddy of the style. Rothko is known for his multiforms, which are large canvases covered in blurred rectangular blocks of two or three colors. The goal of these works was to express the most raw, primordial experience of human emotion possible.

Getting lost in a Rothko should definitely be on your art bucket list. Let the color ignite your fire, cool your jets, or swallow you whole. C

COLOR WHEEL (n.)

A color wheel is a handy and visually pleasing circle with colors on it. It typically has primary colors (yellow, red, and blue), secondary colors (orange, purple, and green) and tertiary colors (mixes of the other colors, for example red/orange). The purpose of the color wheel is to show the relationships between colors.

Did you know that scientist, mathematician, author, and all-around Renaissance man, Sir Isaac Newton invented the color wheel? Seriously, that guy did everything. One day in the 17th century, Newton was thinking about color and playing around with a prism on a windowsill. He observed the rainbow of colors caused by direct sunlight passing through the prism, and later made the color wheel to demonstrate the relationship between various colors and light in a more hands-on way. Thank you, Sir Ike! G

COLUMN (n.)

In ancient Greece, columns were big. Both in terms of popularity, and sometimes size (but watch out, if it becomes too big it’s a pier). Basically, columns are pillars that can provide support for structures. Some columns are freestanding, some are engaged (when attached to a wall), and some stand alone as monuments (look, ma—no building!). Out of these variations, only free-standing columns provide actual support.

The hypostyle prayer hall in the Great Mosque of Córdoba, in southern Spain, is filled with rows of columns supporting double horseshoe arches. All these columns in the prayer room are meant to evoke the feeling of being in a forest, which is objectively dope.

A column consists of three parts: the base at the bottom, the shaft in the middle, and the capital on top. The three classical Greek orders of architecture are Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian, and each order has a corresponding style of column. Doric columns are fluted and baseless, with a simple round capital at the top. The Parthenon in Athens was built in the Doric order. Ionic columns are taller and thinner than their Doric predecessors, with fancier, scroll-like capitals. Corinthian columns were the tallest and most elaborate of all, their capitals decorated with sculpted acanthus leaves and scrolls. The Greeks got really creative, and even made columns called caryatids that look like women supporting the structures—Ginny will tell you all about them. N

COMBINES (n.)

Combines are paintings that incorporate various mediums on canvas. Does that sound like mixed media? Well, it is, but combines take things to the next level.

The term was first coined by American painter Robert Rauschenberg. His 1955 painting, simply titled Bed, looks like a bed if the person who owns that bed also happens to bleed paint. The entire painting is mounted on wooden supports and contains an actual pillow with oil paint and pencil on it, a quilt, and a sheet, all covered with seemingly randomly applied paint. What is this? Was Rauschenberg yanking everyone’s chain? Was he having some kind of breakdown? Rauschenberg simply merged action painting with found objects. By adhering the objects to a painting’s surface, he created a new technique he called combine painting.

Combine paintings usually involve items applied on canvas, but Bed is just made up of the quilt, sheet, and pillow on wooden stretcher bars. Rauschenberg said he couldn’t afford to buy a new canvas when he made Bed, so he used his quilt because it was summertime and he didn’t need it. He apparently tried to transform the quilt to look like something other than a bed, but as he continued to work on the composition, it kept telling him “I’m a bed” so he added a pillow and called it Bed. Sometimes the art tells you what it wants to be and you just gotta listen. G

COMIC STRIP (n.)

The older, yet littler sibling of the graphic novel, a comic strip is a sequence of drawings arranged in interrelated panels to form a narrative, with text in balloons and captions. These strips are typically humorous in nature and are usually serialized, meaning segments of the narrative are published in regular installments, so individual comic strips are shorter by nature. Comic strips are traditionally published in newspapers and magazines, with the first printed in American newspapers as early as the late 19th century. Daily newspapers generally feature shorter black-and-white comics while longer sequences in full color appear in the Sunday funnies.

Comic strips are particularly near and dear to my heart. There is something special about art that not only tells a story, but that you can get in regular installments! The practice of clipping your favorite comics and pinning them somewhere creates a tactile, personal connection between art and viewer. With the rise of webcomics (comics you can find online), the accessibility of the comic strip has reached a new level. Comics are art for the people, taken out of the museum and put straight into the palm of your hand. I’m all about it. J

COMMERCIAL ART (n.)

Simply put, commercial art is all about selling something.

Working in the commercial arts often requires skills in graphic design and advertising. Commercial art is often considered of lesser merit than fine art, but that is pretty much due to an outdated hierarchy. Just like all art, commercial art requires specific skill sets and creative vision. Commercial art includes advertisement campaigns, logos, and branding, and a lot of mass-produced images.

Andy Warhol’s Brillo Boxes (1964) are an example of fine art bringing attention to this contradiction. Warhol painted and silkscreened wooden boxes with reproductions of famous product logos (Brillo soap pads, in this case). His sculptures looked like exact replicas of the consumer product. However, Warhol’s work was considered fine art, while the original design for the product was considered commercial art. People still love to argue about the value of this work and how it relates to the creation of commercial artwork. But, ultimately, if you appreciate the design of the Brillo logo, you’re appreciating the work of the commercial artist, James Harvey, not that of pop artist Andy Warhol. C

COMMISSION (n.)

You can think of a commission as a custom-made artwork for a particular customer. Patrons purchase works from artists to be made specifically for them. An artist could also garner a reputation for painting a certain scene well. Mannerist painter Lavinia Fontana became famous in her town of Bologna, Italy, for her skill in portraiture and altarpieces alike. Her work was coveted by Bologna’s wealthy patrons, and thus she was able to support her husband and eleven children through commissioned work. At different points in history, commissions have been more-or-less imperative to an artist’s livelihood. Commissions were more common when artists relied on wealthy patrons. This is because, with supplies being so costly, they often needed funding to begin working in the first place. Religious institutions and governments have historically been the biggest commissioners of art in our world. Anytime you see public art, remember that someone had to pay for it. Even the Colosseum in Rome was commissioned by Emperor Vespasian as a gift for the Roman people. (Thanks, Vesp!)

We don’t generally associate commissions with our modern conception of the free-spirited artist, but they offer a great way for artists to guarantee a return on the work they’re creating. Nowadays, it’s less necessary for a successful career, but definitely still common. In fact, some artists even work solely on commissions. Whether or not an artist accepts commissions is entirely up to them, but it is a great way to make a buck to support that free-spirited artist lifestyle. N

COMPLEMENTARY COLOR (n.)

I know the term “complementary color” sounds like colors should complement one another, but in reality it means a color’s opposite. Don’t look at me like that. I didn’t write the rules.

Complementary colors are pairs of colors that lie opposite one another on the color wheel and yield the highest contrast when used together. Every pair of complementary colors has a warm color and a cool color; examples include red/green, orange/blue, and yellow/purple. When layered or mixed, complementary colors of the same hue cancel one another out, and when you put complementary colors with too-high saturation next to one another, they appear to glow and vibrate. It’s all very science-y and technical, but artists have been using this knowledge since Sir Isaac Newton discovered the color wheel in the early 16th century—now go visit Gin for more on that. N

COMPOSITE VIEW (n.)

Composite view, also known as composite pose, also known as twisted perspective, was a popular convention in Near Eastern and ancient Egyptian art.

Composite art was typically two-dimensional in nature. Ancient Egyptian artists wanted to convey as much information as possible in a single scene, creating a narrative for the viewer. In order to do this, they combined multiple viewpoints in a single pose. For example, ancient Egyptian figures were often depicted with the feet, legs, hips, and head in profile (facing the side) while the torso was facing forward. Their bodies were all twisty—hence twisted perspective—and hence the late-1980s dance craze, “Walk Like an Egyptian.” C

COMPOSITION (n.)

The term “composition” means the nature of something’s ingredients or parts, the stuff that makes up a thing. In the visual arts, composition is the placement or arrangement of visual elements of a work of art. This is different from the subject of the work. Rather, we’re talking about the pieces of the work and their arrangement in that work. Some other words that can be used interchangeably: design, form, visual ordering, or formal structure, depending on the work and context. We’re talking about the arrangement of the stuff, and if you’re smart about it, your stuff might just make up an iconic—or, at the very least, interesting—composition. J

CONCEPTUAL ART (n.)

Think about it. C

CONSTRUCTIVISM (n.)

In 1922, five years after the Russian Revolution, artist Aleksei Gan wrote a manifesto titled Constructivism, in which he called for an “uncompromising war on art.” Intense. What he really meant by this war on art was to destroy the notion of traditional art, previously made for the wealthy elite. Constructivism aimed to abolish previous artistic norms and pave the way for a new kind of art.

Much like the sociopolitical ethos of the time, Constructivism was all about production and utility. Artists were viewed more as engineers who “constructed” compositions rather than composing them with paint on canvas—the old, elitist medium that did not serve the proletariat. Constructivists drew inspiration from the increasingly industrial world around them, implementing mechanical and geometric forms in their work as well as actual tools such as rulers and hammers. This combination made for some really interesting compositions that blended collage, sculpture, painting, and typography in many cases. G

CONTEMPORARY ART (n.)

Contemporary art—what a wild, silly umbrella term. It is often used to describe the art of today. However, it has also become the term used to encompass all art created after the postmodern period (and also some of the art within the postmodern period???). Some people consider all art made since the 1950s to be contemporary art. While this is up for debate, the term undoubtedly includes a great deal of art from the 1980s, which is definitely not the art of today.

The term “contemporary art” has been defended as a term that defines a movement of art that has become undefinable. Approaches to art-making have become so diverse that, in the timeline of art history it has become difficult, if not impossible, to define using a single term.

PROTEST ART, STENCIL, STREET ART, TAG

But we are humans, and we use words to make sense out of complicated things. The term “contemporary art” is useful in that it categorizes art created contemporaneously to our 21st-century existence (and some of our most recent history). But, this gets pretty sticky because, presumably, time will continue to march on and there will be many more versions of the art of today (that is if we get this climate change thing under control). And, presumably, art and art practices will continue to diversify and further evade definition. At which point we’re in what … the post-contemporary period? Naw bro. Contemporary art is defined by being undefinable. But also, if we’re being real, is any art truly “definable”?

Thank you for coming to my TED Talk. C

CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS (n.)

The textbook definition of contextualization is “to place or study in context.”

Contextualization is a favorite word of academics and art aficionados alike, but it is also likely to be overheard in coffee shop discourse or seen floating around the twitterverse. In the study of art history, contextualization can also be referred to as contextual analysis—analyzing the context in which a work of art was made. This can involve anything and everything from the details of the artist’s personal life, to the religious circumstances of a particular country, to the patronage of the work.

While visual analysis is also a valuable component of art history studies, many would argue that context is everything (or perhaps, context is … key?). C

CONTINUOUS NARRATIVE (n.)

One of the many amazing features of creating art is that artists have complete control over the reality within their work. Therefore, rules we have to accept in the real world don’t have to apply within the painting—including the physical rules of space and time.

At some point, artists realized they could paint multiple moments from a narrative into a single painting. Continuous narrative means there are multiple moments represented in a single scene. This became common practice in Christian art in which artists would be tasked to convey a long story in one painting. So, if you’re looking at Sandro Botticelli’s The Story of Lucretia (c. 1500) and wondering if you spaced out at the part where your professor said Lucretia had two identical sisters—you didn’t. Botticelli represented three different parts of Lucretia’s story in the same painting … because he could. N

CONTRAPPOSTO (n.)

Contrapposto is an Italian word meaning “opposite” and is used in the visual arts to describe the naturalistic pose of the human figure. The figure stands with most weight on one foot, so that the line of the arms and shoulders contrasts with those of the hips and legs—opposites, get it? This asymmetrical arrangement of the human figure creates the appearance of natural weight distribution and a balanced form. If you’re having trouble picturing this, try standing completely straight in front of a mirror, with an equal amount of weight on both feet. Comfortable? No? I didn’t think so. Now try shifting your weight onto one leg. How does that feel? Better, right? Look at yourself in the mirror and you will see a body posture not unlike Michelangelo’s David, arguably the most famous example of contrapposto in sculpture.

A recent eye-tracking study found that the contrapposto pose ignites the parts of our brains that register attraction, so if you felt sassy and flirty while you were in contrapposto, turns out there’s some science behind that. That might help explain why, in art, goddesses of beauty and love are often depicted in contrapposto pose. Oh humans, we’re just horny animals after all. J

CONTRAST (n./v.)

If you’ve ever digitally edited a photograph, it’s likely you’re familiar with contrast. If you were a teenager in the early 2000s, you’re well acquainted. At its most basic, contrast means difference. Aesthetically speaking, it allows us to measure the difference between elements. Contrast can apply to tone, shade, color, context … if you can compare it, you can contrast it. Painters over the years have developed techniques that center around contrast (see chiaroscuro and tenebrism). Contrast intensifies elements by juxtaposing them with their opposites. Colors are also contrastable—complementary colors, for example, yield the highest contrast. Most commonly, contrast in photography refers to contrast in light, or the balance between light and dark. N

CRAFT (n./v.)

As a verb, the term “to craft” is to make or produce with care, skill, and ingenuity. As a noun, “craft” refers to an occupation or trade requiring manual dexterity and great skill. As a film, The Craft served as the witchcraft primer extraordinaire for the Art History Babes and many other spooky little girls of the mid-90s.

We associate craft with handmade objects, the underlying notion being that somebody made that thing with their hands and we can tell. That last part is pretty important, especially if you consider craft in the history of human industry. In the 19th century, crafts and the craftsperson became associated with morality and spiritual wellness in the face of industrialization and mass-produced objects (see Arts and Crafts movement). Because of this response to the advent of mass production, the idea that handmade objects are intrinsically better has been around for a long time. In the 21st century, this idea has been capitalized on in all manner of consumerist tricks that work pretty well to grab our attention and our dollars (craft microbrews, anyone?). J

CRAFTIVISM (n.)

Craft + activism = craftivism

Craftivism exists at the intersection of art and activism. Practitioners of craftivism— craftivists—use traditionally defined craft materials to express an activist message, often engaging with anti-capitalist, environmental, social justice, or feminist issues. Some of the most popular examples of craftivism are radical embroidery and yarn bombing.

Throughout the history of art, craft has been relegated to the margins. Defined as the applied arts, needlework and other forms of craft production have ranked lower on the hierarchy of visual art than other artforms. In challenging this view, craftivism embraces craft-based mediums to use in protest or to make political statements. C

CUBISM (n.)

In 1907, Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque got together in Paris and pioneered the artistic movement known as Cubism. The name comes from the depiction of “little cubes” that were ridiculed by critics of the time. Guys, so many names of art movements come from derogatory comments made by critics. It’s a thing.

Picasso and Braque developed a visual language for Cubism in which traditional one-point perspective was tossed aside, conventional representation was rejected, shapes became more geometric, and the fourth dimension was considered. Artists challenged viewers to contemplate a subject broken down into simple, fragmented pieces—oftentimes from several different angles at once—but left identifiable features so that subjects were still somewhat recognizable. Engaging with the fourth dimension meant adding time to the equation, so artists showed a figure moving through space on the same plane.

Cubism focuses on taking complex or weighty concepts and simplifying them visually, which sounds wonderful and harmless. Unfortunately, much of Picasso’s inspiration for Cubism came from the discovery of African tribal art—which he considered to be primitive compared to Western art. *major eye roll* N

CULTURAL APPROPRIATION (n.)

Cultural appropriation is the adoption of elements from one culture by members of another culture. On the surface, this doesn’t sound that bad, but I’m here to tell you right now: it is not the business, folks. Cultural appropriation (sometimes more aptly called cultural misappropriation) is different from acculturation, assimilation, or equal cultural exchange. This is because cultural appropriation is a form of colonialism: cultural elements are copied from a minority culture by members of a dominant culture, and these elements are used outside of their original cultural context—sometimes even against the explicitly stated wishes of members of the originating culture. This makes it harmful, super problematic, and just not okay.

Cultural appropriation happens all of the time. Take a look around at a costume party or music festival and chances are you will see someone wearing a kimono, a Native American headdress, or a bindi. And chances are also that that person does not belong to the culture that claims ownership of that particular garment or accessory. Some of you may be asking, “What’s the big deal? They’re just playing dress up.” The big deal is that cultural appropriation is exploitative and disrespectful. Cultural elements that may have deep meaning to the original culture are reduced to “exotic” fashion or toys by those from the dominant culture. The original meaning of these cultural elements is lost or distorted, which alienates those whose culture is being appropriated. It’s also worth pointing out that, when this is done, the imitator gets to “play” temporarily, and doesn’t have to experience any of the oppression or discrimination faced by other cultures. This is all to say: you can appreciate other cultures without being disrespectful, just have some common sense. J

CUNEIFORM (n.)

Cuneiform is a kind of writing created by the ancient Sumerians in Mesopotamia. It combines pictographs (images of words) with phonograms (symbols representing sounds) and was carved into soft clay using a pointed tool. Aesthetically, cuneiform is wedge-shaped, hence its name, which comes from the Latin word for “wedge” (cuneus). It was first developed around 3000 BCE, as a way for temple officials to keep track of moving grain and animal livestock. Soon everyone was using cuneiform: it was translated into about fifteen different languages and expanded in usage to record histories and literature including the Epic of Gilgamesh (2800–2500 BCE). Cuneiform had a 3,000-year long history before it was eventually ditched for an alphabetic system. Fortunately, we have many examples of cuneiform that have been preserved. G

CURATOR (n.)

Curators are the keepers of a museum’s collection. They manage the acquisition, preservation, display and, in many cases, interpretation of museum artifacts. In fact, the word “curator” derives from the Latin word for “to take care” (curare).

A curator specializes in their given field—often holding a PhD in history, history of art, archaeology, anthropology, or classics—and has multifaceted tasks dependent on the particular institution and its mission. They are also expected to contribute to their academic field, for example, by delivering public talks, publishing articles, or presenting at specialist academic conferences. It is also important that curators have knowledge of the current collecting market for their area of expertise and are aware of the ethical practices and laws that may impact their organization’s collecting. In recent years, the role of the curator has evolved alongside the changing roles of museums. As museums are becoming increasingly more digitized, curators find themselves constructing narratives in both the material and digital worlds.

But the concept of curation is not just reserved for a small group of experts. In fact, most of us engage in curation on a daily basis. Choosing images and content to display on our social media accounts is a type of curation: you are curating the experience of your life for your followers. Your tastes, hobbies, humor, and politics are just some of the aspects you choose to reveal or conceal to the world. And just as you curate your own online presence, the people you follow are doing the same—a good thing to keep in mind as you scroll away on the ’gram. J

D

DADA (n.)

Let’s go back to 1916, to a small nightclub in Zürich, Switzerland, called Cabaret Voltaire. Inside, the German author, poet, and founder of the club, Hugo Ball, has taken the stage. He wears an absurd costume made up of various tubes encasing his limbs and body, lobster-like claws protrude from his arm tubes and, to top it off, a hat resembling a chef’s toque covers his head. He is reciting his new poem “Karawane,” consisting of a bunch of nonsensical words (or, more appropriately, sounds). The audience looks on, perplexed.

This moment has long been marked as the beginning of the avant-garde art movement known as Dadaism, or simply Dada. These artists formed the movement as a reaction to the horrors of World War I and rejected the logic, reason, and aestheticism of modern capitalist society. Instead, they embraced the illogical, the irrational, and the nonsensical. The word itself—“dada”—sounds like the babbling of a baby, although there is no official consensus on where the name came from.

The art of Dada spanned the gamut of everything from poetry and painting to collage and sculpture. Dada can be difficult to nail down as a cohesive style or aesthetic, but one unifying principle reigns supreme: complete absurdism. Today, we see evidence of the Dada absurdist credo all around us, from the pervasive world of internet meme culture, to the outright circus that dominates our daily news media. It seems the most enduring aspect of modernism has been the mass appeal of absurdism during times of great uncertainty. J

DATA VISUALIZATION (n.)

It’s the 21st century and, if you’ve been paying attention, you’ll have noticed that data is everything … and everywhere. So obviously humans are going to turn it into art. I mean, what a waste if we didn’t.

The broadest definition of data visualization is the use of graphics and pictures to represent information. However, an entire subset of scientists, artists, and coders have taken this practice to a new level. Data visualization artists turn scientific datasets into visual representations. This can be done by using data to produce an abstract image on a computer screen (as in a music visualizer), or the same data can be molded into a three-dimensional sculpture using predetermined criteria. That same data could then be translated into music or brushstrokes or steps in a performance piece or really any other thing you can possibly imagine. While the artist sets the parameters and chooses the data sets, the numbers guide the direction of that artwork and the end result is a beautiful collision of art and science. What a time to be alive. C

DATAMOSH (v.)

Datamoshing is the process of creating video glitch art. It sounds very fast and violent, but is essentially corrupting the data of a video file to create visually interesting glitchy effects. The practice hit the scene in the early 2000s and went mainstream in 2009 when Kanye West used the technique for his “Welcome to Heartbreak” music video.

I’m sure my elementary explanation will enrage all coder bros everywhere, but here goes … The three main types of datamoshing are: file destruction, I-frame destruction, and P-frame duplication. File destruction is pretty straightforward—you mess with the video’s code by replacing random bits of data with other random bits of data. With I-frame destruction, you remove important image data (I-frames) and images from previous frames end up stuck on top of the motion of the following frames. With P-frame (predictive frame) duplication, you duplicate the P-frames and you end up with a trippy, colorful blooming effect. It’s all very fun to look at. Especially when certain substances are involved. C

DE STIJL (n.)

In 1918, Dutch furniture designer and architect Gerrit Rietveld made a chair. Over one hundred years later, we’re still talking about it. The chair in question, known as Red Blue Chair, is made up of intersecting panels of lacquered beechwood, painted in primary colors. While Red Blue Chair doesn’t exactly look like the coziest chair to curl up in, it is hugely important in the history of modern design because it was one of the first times the theories and principles developed by the De Stijl movement were put to task.

De Stijl, Dutch for “The Style,” was a Dutch modern art movement founded in 1917. Artists, architects, and designers came together to promote the art of geometric abstraction, primary colors, and an overall emphasis on pure abstraction. The Dutch artist Piet Mondrian provides us with the best visual example of De Stijl principles. You’ve probably encountered his work before: stark white canvases broken up by grids made up of thick, black lines. The rectangles made by the grids are sometimes painted a bold, primary color or are left white. The basic idea behind De Stijl was that a universal language of form could be achieved using geometric shapes and simplified color, and modern design could be codified into a cohesive, easily applicable style (The Style, get it?). J

DECOLONIZE (v.)

Traditionally, the term “decolonization” refers to the political process by which a colonized population becomes independent of its colonizing country. This process is most often the result of revolution (violent or nonviolent). I’m sure you’re at least vaguely familiar with political revolutions and wars of independence, as there have been endless examples all over the world throughout history. If not, it’s time to use that big beautiful brain of yours and get to researching, because this stuff is important.

Contemporarily, the word “decolonize” has taken on a much more comprehensive meaning. It has come to mean the conscious undoing of narratives developed by colonial powers, as well as the dismantling of social and political structures that are rooted in colonialism or that unfairly benefit colonial powers (there are plenty of them).

This concept comes into play in both the art world and academia a lot. In the art world, the need for decolonization can be seen with issues such as repatriation of artifacts to their countries of origin, equal representation of artists, and highlighting marginalized voices. In academic institutions this work can be seen through incorporation of postcolonial theory and the decolonization of classroom syllabi.

See our entries on Eurocentricism, postcolonialism, and Orientalism for more information and then consult more resources, and then more resources. Decolonizethisplace.org is a great place to start. This is an amazing action-oriented collective carrying out powerful and necessary political and arts-based work. Most importantly, listen to the voices that have been silenced or undermined. Make space. Do the uncomfortable work. We’re all in this together and we all have a great deal of unlearning to do. C

DECONSTRUCTION (n.)

* cracks knuckles *

Alright, let’s talk philosophy in <200 words. Deconstruction defines the 20th-century philosophical technique invented by the Algerian-born French philosopher, Jacques Derrida, for using a text to dismantle itself. He said, to disprove a piece of writing, you only need to use that writing, or as he famously put it: “there is no other text.” Derrida’s method attacks writing from within, using the words of a text as the basis for a counterpoint argument. This is because he believed language to be subjective, meaning there is no collective understanding of language, and therefore multiple meanings can be extracted from a single piece of writing. Multiple interpretations? That’s contradictory, folks. Basically, Derrida said “no, no, no” to what Western philosophers had been saying since ancient Greece: that language holds objective meaning, and therefore writing in that language holds objective truth. Derrida saw this as a thinly veiled attempt for powerful institutions to achieve their own self-serving objectives. Instead, he insisted that the appropriate response was to break it open and deconstruct it from the inside out.

CERAMIC, MUSEUM, VANITAS

Because deconstruction aimed to dismantle powerful structures, why not use it—literally—to deconstruct powerful structures such as, say, buildings … ? N

DECONSTRUCTIVISM (n.)

Deconstructivism is a postmodern architectural style that developed in the 1980s from the philosophy of Jacques Derrida’s (see deconstruction). Its aim was to reject the basic tenets of modern architecture. I know, sounds dangerous. Pioneers of the style weren’t interested in making structures less safe, but instead focused on design elements and expanded beyond the traditional reliance on the cube and right angles. As Iraqi-British architect and designer Zaha Hadid asserted when asked about the unusual use of angles in her designs, “There are 360 degrees, so why stick to one?” That logic is evident in her design for the new Antwerp Port House, in Belgium, a modern structure constructed on top of the existing early-20th-century building. Her addition looks like a giant glass bow of a ship jutting out over the water. Words (just as Derrida claimed) don’t do it justice, so go do a quick internet search, I promise you won’t be disappointed. N

DER BLAUE REITER (n.)

See The Blue Rider.

DERIVATIVE (adj.)

If you’ve ever been to a gallery or museum, chances are you’ve heard the term “derivative” thrown around at least once or twice. I would stand to bet that it went something like: “*sigh* … that is so derivative of [insert artist, movement, or aesthetic sensibility of choice here].” Perhaps the person saying it is wearing eyeglasses with very gaudy (very expensive) frames—some designer brand you’ve probably never heard of. Maybe they think they are better than you … hmmm.

This word is often used disapprovingly when someone wants to suggest something is unoriginal, uninventive, and unimaginative. It may not be straight-up plagiarism, but it’s cliché, stale, tired, trite, banal (all good words to use in a gallery if you really want to sound like an epic tool). But people like our hypothetical snooty gallery-goer have given an otherwise very useful and descriptive word a bad rap. For, in the simplest terms, something or someone is derivative simply when they imitate the work of another person. Personally, I believe that everyone and everything is derivative in one way or another. Art is not created in a bubble, and it’s okay to take inspiration from someone else’s work. Just change it up a little bit so it doesn’t look like you copied the homework. J

THE DÉRIVE (n.)

See The Situationist International.

DESIGN (n./v.)

If you learn anything from this book, please let it be the genuine importance of good design. To design is to create, so everything ever made by humans was technically designed: buildings, cars, pieces of furniture, graphics, back scratchers, snuggies, Squatty Potties, and so much more. If you choose a career in design, there are so many different directions you can go with it. There’s interior, graphic, urban, landscape, product, exhibition … just to name a few.

Many creations begin with a physical design—a plan drawn up before the actual assemblage of an item. Fashion designers draw designs of their garments before sewing a sample (often called a pattern), artists sketch designs before beginning a masterpiece, and a graphic designer designed this book before it was printed.

In the modern world, especially, design impacts us every day. If you’re not convinced that bad design can be all that bad, just remember the Palm Beach Ballot scandal of the 2000 U.S. presidential election. The designer who created the ballots decided on a butterfly ballot design, so the candidate names were staggered on either side of a central column of markers. It meant that the order of names on either side did not correspond to their given marker. So, VP Al Gore’s name was listed second, but his marker was listed third, which meant that confused voters likely marked Patrick J. Buchanan of the Reform Party when they had intended to vote for poor Al. To be fair, amazing design rarely gets the attention that we give to design failures. Taking the time to appreciate well-thought-out design is a subtle act of practicing gratitude, and can’t we all use a little more of that? N

DIALOGUE (n.)

If you wish to sound rather sophisticated (I couldn’t even write that without hearing the voice of the Dowager Countess from TV’s "Downton Abbey"), the phrase “in dialogue” can be used to describe two artworks or ideas that are in conversation with one another. Art can often be “in dialogue” with major issues or concepts. For example, Juliana Huxtable’s 2015 performance There Are Certain Facts that Cannot Be Disputed provides a rich, multi-layered perspective to the dialogue surrounding the issue of Eurocentric institutionalized narratives of history. C

CAMERA OBSCURA, KOUROS / KORE, SURREALISM

DIE BRÜCKE (n.)

See German Expressionism.

DIGITAL ART (n.)

Digital art is art made using some form of digital technology, such as a computer or artificial intelligence. The term was born in the 1980s, the decade of step aerobics and cutting-edge computer technology. Artist Harold Cohen began working with a computer program called AARON, which was a robot programmed to make large drawings on paper. Yes, robot art (see AI art). In the decades since the creation of AARON, technology has continued to advance, and artists are working with digital art in many ways, from video manipulation to interactive digital art installations. Computer Generated Imagery (CGI) is huge right now, and with today’s technology plus social media, you can easily access digital art. Want to see some lil' aliens doing a coordinated dance? Check out artist Marc Tudisco’s Instagram, I could watch his surrealist animations for hours and he’s just one of many incredibly talented digital artists out there. G

DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY (n.)

The art of producing and manipulating digital photographs. Unlike images produced via film photography, digital photographs are represented as bitmaps (rows and rows of tiny dots). These images are most often created using a digital camera, however, there are other ways of producing digital photographs. For example, if you scan a film photograph, the scanner uses computer magic to digitize the image. In other words, it converts the image into rows and rows of tiny dots, and you have yourself a digital photograph.

There are many gadgets and gizmos you can buy to become a digital photographer, but all you really need is a tool that you are statistically likely to already have—a smartphone. The quality of the tiny cameras inside our phones is constantly improving, as are the photo-editing apps we use to manipulate those photos. Technically, if you have an Instagram or VSCO account, you’re a digital photographer and your feed is your portfolio. C

DIMENSIONS (n.)

The size of a given artwork is known as its dimensions. This can include length, height, depth, time, or breadth. Two-dimensional artwork includes drawings, paintings, and photographs—anything on a flat surface. Three-dimensional art is anything with a height, length, and depth, like sculptures. Now if you’re into Dada and want to get into the fourth dimension, we consider a fourth factor: time. *Insert Twilight Zone theme song*

Whether you’re working with two, three, or four dimensions, this information can be extremely important when it comes to understanding, curating, showing, storing, or transporting art. Entire exhibitions can be planned and organized without actually seeing works, so having the wrong dimensions can result in an art preparator’s nightmare. N

DIPTYCH (n.)

A diptych is one piece of art, comprised of two pieces. They can be painted or carved on a variety of materials and are either joined together or hung with space in between them. Because a diptych is meant to be viewed as one piece, the composition on one panel usually relates to, or continues right on to, the next.

Often, altarpieces are diptychs, with the panels hinged together so they can be closed. Shutting an altarpiece diptych when not in use better protects the art, keeping it safe from smoke, dust, grubby fingers, and so on. There are also a variety of examples of diptychs in contemporary art. They are practical for artists who want to make bigger works, but have cars that can only fit a certain sized panel.

And you don’t have to stop at two! A polyptych is a more general term used to describe an artwork made of multiple sections: diptych, triptych with three sections, quadriptych with four, and so on. As you can imagine, these get pretty elaborate.

The Flemish painter Jan van Eyck won the polyptych game with his extravagant Ghent Altarpiece, completed c. 1432. Van Eyck painted twelve panels for this masterpiece. A little over 15 feet (4.5 meters) long when opened up completely, it depicts various scenes from the Bible, with Christ the King (or God the Father) in the middle-top panel, flanked by the Virgin Mary and John the Baptist. There are various singing angels, Adam and Eve, and below them are prophets, apostles, confessors, martyrs, popes, and angels galore. On the back are a number of angels and saints, and even the donors for the work (because with the right amount of cash, you, too, can be raised to the level of saintly folks). Because we don’t know enough about Greek numbering conventions to figure out what to call this work, we’re going to go with polyptych and call it a day. G & J

DISCONTINUITY (n.)

Welcome to Let’s! Get! Theoretical! I am your host, Michel Foucault and today we are playing for an understanding of the flow of human history!

The word “discontinuity” can be defined as a distinct break in physical continuity or sequence in time. Michel Foucault, widely considered to be one of the leading voices in postmodern philosophy, used the term as a tool for understanding human history, specifically the transitions between eras. Foucault believed that discontinuities in knowledge and reason were likely to occur during transitional periods of history.

As you can imagine, there is considerable overlap between postmodern art and postmodern philosophy. Unlike earlier art in the chronology of art history, postmodern art tends to represent the physical world inaccurately, and sometimes doesn’t make a lot of logical sense. We often see a disruption of narrative, which can be helpful in highlighting contradictions within social structures or just straight up messing with your reality. For example, experimental filmmaker Maya Deren plays with discontinuity in her 1943 trance film, Meshes of the Afternoon. The film does not follow a smooth, progressive timeline (see continuous narrative), but moments are interrupted and transitions occur abruptly. Instead of providing a cut-and-dried storyline, the film relies on the repetition of certain visual motifs, such as the image of a knife.

It’s safe to say that many of us have experienced discontinuity in our lives. In Meshes of the Afternoon, Deren is expressing the discontinuity that occurs in one’s memory after a particular experience. Moreover, the 21st century has been a pretty crazy ride so far, and many of us likely feel that we are experiencing the discontinuity of historical transition firsthand. That feeling of “everything I thought I knew is wrong” or “nothing is as it seems” or “what even is reality?”—that’s discontinuity! C

DISEGNO (n./adj.)

I love saying disegno—it makes me feel like a gallery director who has a villa outside of Rome and has only lovers, not boyfriends.

Disegno is Italian for “design” or “drawing,” but the meaning is much deeper than the literal translation. The term was first coined during the Italian Renaissance. It emphasized an artist’s intellectual ability to create, elevating them to a level with God. Can you believe? Artists were straight-up kings in the Italian Renaissance. An artist credited with possessing disegno was considered a master who could create works that were viewed as superior to mere craft. Disegno dudes made art that inspired spiritual contemplation, intellectual debate, and emotional epiphanies! Disegno, disegno, disegno. Say it three times in front of a mirror in the dark and you may see the ghost of Michelangelo. G

DIVISIONISM (n.)

Divisionism—subsequently known as pointillism—refers to the artistic technique developed and popularized by French artists Georges Seurat and Paul Signac during the Neo-Impressionist movement of the 1880s and 1890s. The artist paints pure strokes of color as small adjacent “bricks.” Though the paint dabs remain unblended on the canvas, they become mixed by the viewer’s eye. This optical mixing of colors was based on popular color theory of the time, and makes a painting appear more luminous. A famous work of divisionism is Seurat’s A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte painted in 1884. You know, the one Cameron has a moment with at the Art Institute of Chicago in Ferris Bueller’s Day Off (1986).

You’re probably more familiar with the term “pointillism.” At one point, maybe you even had the pleasure of making your own pointillist masterpiece using tempera paint and cotton swabs, like a tiny Vincent van Gogh. Though many refer to this style of painting as pointillism, Seurat and Signac preferred divisionism for its emphasis on the division of color—not on the point-like strokes. So, out of respect for the OGs, let’s bring back the term “divisionism.” N

DOME (n.)

It’s big, it’s round, it’s an effective architectural form—it’s a dome.

Humankind has been building domed structures since prehistory (some archaeologists claim these forms go as far back as 19,000 BCE), using materials such as mud, grass, hides, and in some climates, even ice. Since domed structures popped up around the same time in ancient civilizations throughout the world, we have reason to believe the shape has no single point of origin. It seems to be a universal truth that humans just love a good dome.

So why the dome? Theories abound, but one of the most prevalent is that the dome serves as a reproduction of the heavens on Earth. To the ancient observer, the night sky appeared as a gigantic dome overhead, marked with millions of stars, enclosing Earth in a protective womb. Perhaps this is why the shape of the dome has been seen predominantly in funerary and religious architecture. Regardless of the symbolism, one thing is for sure: we love domes. J

DRYPOINT (n.)

Drypoint is a printmaking technique. It involves drawing onto a metal plate (usually copper) using a sharp tool. Drypoint is part of the broader term “intaglio,” which refers to any kind of printmaking that involves incising or engraving a design into a surface. To make a print, the artist rolls ink over the top of their engraved design and wipes off any excess. Some ink remains inside of the engraved incisions, and it’s this that translates to the image when printed. With drypoint, the lines incised in the metal plate have a slight jagged edge (called the burr). When the plate is printed, the burr makes the lines soft, and somewhat out of focus, giving a luscious, velvety look. Because of the fragility of the burr, drypoint prints are typically made in small editions. If you keep printing on the same plate a bunch of times, the burr gets pressed right on out of existence. G

DUCHAMPIAN (adj.)

When something is Duchampian, it resembles, or brings to mind, the style of modern French artist Marcel Duchamp. If you think such a word is too niche, just know that Corrie, Jen, and I took a full grad-school course on this guy and there was no shortage of material (shout out, Professor Housefield). Duchamp was so prolific during the 20th century, that signs of his influence are sprinkled all over. I mean, the guy invented the readymade for heaven’s sake (meaning Andy Warhol’s Brillo Boxes are Duchampian as hell). American sculptor Alexander Calder’s mobile-like sculptures remind me so much of The Large Glass (The Bride Stripped Bare by Her Bachelors, Even) (1915–23). And British-Nigerian artist Yinka Shonibare’s work with headless mannequins brings to mind Duchamp’s Étant Donnés (1946–66). I won’t even get into the many artists who have paid homage to Fountain (1917). His widespread approach to art opened the door for many interesting styles, techniques, and attitudes in modern art—and for that, he rightly earned his very own adjective. R. Mutt (jk, it’s Nat)

DYNAMISM (n.)

The word “dynamism” comes from the Greek dunamis, which means “power.” The theory is that all phenomena can be explained as manifestations of force. If something is dynamic, it is constantly changing. It is the opposite of static, which means staying the same.

The Italian Futurists were the first to use dynamism in relation to artwork. This tracks, since they were particularly enamored with powerful machines, such as trains and automobiles. In this instance, dynamism is defined by motion in a pretty literal way. However, the use of the word has broadened to mean a powerful sense of movement or energy expressed through a work of art. In other words, if a work has energy, is exciting, and makes you feel something powerful, you could say something along the lines of: “This piece has such dynamism” or “The use of red in that painting is so dynamic,” and you will look all smart and well-versed in art lingo in front of your friends. C

E

EARTH ART (n.)

Art created from the Earth! Well, technically, most art is created from the Earth, but the terms “earth art,” “land art,” and “earthworks” all refer to art made from raw materials such as dirt, rocks, trees, dead bugs—whatever you can find. Many of these works have a sizeable, if not somewhat invasive effect on the landscape. In this way, a land artist makes art out of our planet.

Earthworks date all the way back to prehistoric times (see prehistoric art). Some early examples are the Nazca Lines in southern Peru, Stonehenge in the United Kingdom, and the effigy mounds of pre-Columbian America (see pre-Columbian art). In the late 1960s, an entire movement of land art developed from the hippie movement. These free-minded artists wanted to make art that was one with the planet, and many of them were influenced by the aforementioned geoglyphs and effigy mounds of earlier artists and cultures. These contemporary earth artists also adopted the rejection of commodity championed by 1960s counterculture. By creating artworks that were site specific, reliant on the natural landscape, and ephemeral in nature (see ephemeral art), the earth artists hoped to escape the greedy clutches of the art market.

However, capitalism is a relentless machine and many works of land art have managed to make their way into the market. Nonetheless, massive earthworks, such as Robert Smithson’s Spiral Jetty (1970) and Nancy Holt’s Sun Tunnels (1976), make for a pretty rad and contemplative, art-meets-nature adventure. C

CUBISM, STILL LIFE

EFFIGY MOUND (n.)

Effigy mounds are man-made hills of dirt, often shaped like animals. Such mounds acted as landmarks and burial sites during the Woodland period (1000 BCE–1000 CE) in pre-Columbian North American culture (see pre-Columbian art). The Native Americans who built effigy mounds inhabited what is now the American Midwest, including Iowa, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Illinois, and Ohio. Effigy mounds exist in the shapes of snakes, bears, birds, deer, bison, turtles, panthers, and water spirits (I have no idea what a water spirit is—that came straight from the Effigy Mounds Monument National Park website). It’s believed that effigy mounds were considered sacred by those who built them. Unfortunately, their significance remains mostly a mystery because their history has been lost over time due to the oppression, forced assimilation, and mass genocide of Native American tribes. History is a real bummer sometimes. N

EMBROIDERY (n.)

Embroidery is the practice of designing and decorating fabric using a needle and thread, or yarn. You know what I really appreciate about embroidery? It is so old. People have been embroidering for thousands of years, all over the world, and the technique remains just as popular today as it ever was. Just think about that collective human practice that has continued to endure, how beautiful is that?

While embroidery certainly serves the practical purpose of mending materials by stitching, people also use embroidery as a visual form of expression. It’s fairly common to embroider clothing or more decorative items such as rugs, table runners, and so on. Embroidered pieces can also stand alone as framed works.

Due to the patriarchy frequently associated with art history and embroidery’s own history as women’s work, the craft is often overlooked as an artform. Historical examples, such as the massive 11th-century Bayeux Tapestry, which conveys the Norman conquest of England, is a work of art. Contemporary pieces by Iranian embroidery artist Ibrahim Jabbar-Beik are also works of art. Embroidery is art! G

EN PLEIN AIR (adj.)

En plein air is French for “outdoors” and refers to the act of painting outdoors. Obviously, anyone can paint outdoors, and artists have been doing it for a long time, but in the mid-19th century, the French took it to the next level.

In 1830, a group of French artists formed the Barbizon school, which took its name from the village of Barbizon, France, where these artists gathered and painted landscapes that explored tonal qualities of light and color. These early proponents of painting from nature went on to inspire the Impressionist movement of the next generation, who took painting en plein air as doctrine. Later on, Dutch artist Vincent van Gogh became obsessed with painting outdoors and believed that only by living and working in the middle of unspoiled countryside, could an artist truly understand nature. For van Gogh, nature and art were inseparably linked, a position that would lead him to have many arguments with his friend and fellow artist, Paul Gauguin (don’t even get me started on that guy).

Today, painting en plein air has become a standard part of a traditional arts education, but that doesn’t mean you have to be a painter to paint outdoors! Go on, buy a cheap canvas, set it up in your backyard or a local nature preserve, and have at it. If you have the ability to get out the door you can do it! J

ENAMEL (n.)

Not to be confused with tooth enamel, this enamel is a kind of paint that dries to a hard, usually glossy finish. In the 20th century, artists such as René Georges Hermann-Paul and Australian Sidney Nolan popularized the use of commercial enamel paint in their works. Certainly, the look and finish of the paint was the main draw for these artists, but something about the radicalness of using industrial paints (most often reserved for use in manufacturing) made enamel a choice medium for these artists at the forefront of their respective movements. J

ENCAUSTIC (n./adj.)

The word “encaustic” originates from the Greek enkaustikos, which means “to burn in.” The term refers to a process in which an artist mixes colored pigments with hot beeswax before applying to a surface—usually prepared wood or canvas. The artist may then use metal tools or special brushes to manipulate the paint before it cools. Because the binding material is wax, artists can sculpt with the medium too.

Given the Greek origin of the word, it’s fair to say that this method is quite old. In fact, the technique is evident in the Fayum mummy portraits from ancient Egypt (100–300 CE). The portraits, painted onto sarcophagi, retain their vivid colors almost 2,000 years on! In the 20th century, American artists such as Jasper Johns and Mark Perlman employed the technique to create a dynamic body of work, so demonstrating the sheer versatility of the medium. J

EPHEMERAL ART (n.)

Everything dies.

I have a lifespan, you have a lifespan, and even art, despite our constant attempts to keep it frozen in time, has a lifespan.

Ephemeral art embraces and explores this idea. An artist can achieve this through a single occurrence, such as an non-replicable piece of performance art, or through something more gradual, such as an artwork left to decompose amidst the elements of nature. Ephemeral art hinges on the fact that it (and everything) is fleeting and impermanent.

Every year, a bunch of hippies congregate in the middle of the Nevada desert to celebrate artistic expression during a nine-day festival called Burning Man. And every year, massive sculptures are erected atop the scorching hot sand, many of which are burnt to the ground at the festival’s end. The sculptures are meant to exist as an element of the festival. Ephemerality is what gives the works their impact, and what gives the festival its name. Much like these sculptures, the entire “Black Rock City” is meant to exist only temporarily and eventually the sculptures, the city, and the experience reach their an inevitable end.

There are many reasons to explore ephemerality in art but, ultimately, an ephemeral work of art shouts at the viewer that it is here now, so you better appreciate it before it disappears. C

EROTIC ART (n.)

Ah, two of my favorite things come together. The word erotic comes from the Greek god of sexual love, Eros. So, we call art that stirs up sexual feelings erotic art. What constitutes erotic art and what exactly arouses that kind of excitement can vary drastically—I’m not here to judge. Erotic images have a long lineage, with examples existing from ancient Egypt, Greece, Rome, India and Peru, among others. On a cultural level, eroticism looks different depending on where and when the art was created. Images depict erotic scenes between men and women, just men, just women, and even some casual bestiality. Sexual acts represented in erotic art focus on pleasure, not makin’ babies, and certain civilizations were more sex positive than others. Major world religions like Christianity and Islam have never really been down with images of an erotic nature, but that doesn’t mean that the occasional sensual work didn’t slip by. Gian Lorenzo Bernini’s sculpture the Ecstasy of St. Teresa (1647–52) was created for the Vatican in Rome and represents the saint mid-heavenly vision—yet her face and curled toes allude to a more familiar sensation.

During the Edo period in Japan, Shunga prints featured scenes ranging from tender to downright explicit. Even considering the raunchier stuff, don’t make the mistake of confusing erotic art for porn. According to poet and feminist Audre Lorde, eroticism is a source of power whereas pornography—its opposite—denies and suppresses erotic power. As she put it, “pornography emphasizes sensation without feeling,” while “the erotic is a measure between the beginnings of our sense of self and the chaos of our strongest feelings.” Eroticism pairs perfectly with art as they’re both examples of humans exploring their place and power in this chaotic world. N

ETCHING (n./v.)

An etching is created when you coat a piece of (usually) metal with a protective, waxy layer before you carve into it with a fine needle, removing the protective layer and exposing the surface underneath. Then, a layer of strong acid is applied to the surface (or the plate is dipped into an acid wash, called the mordant), attacking the parts that were exposed by the carving. This acid “bites” into the metal, leaving behind lines sunk into the plate. The result is a piece of metal that you can then use to create multiple prints. This process was developed sometime around the turn of the 16th century and was a very important technique for creating Old Master prints, but remains popular today. If you want to try it for yourself, make sure you get some formal training in the technique beforehand. Acid is no joke. J

EUROCENTRICISM (n.)

As in, the academic study of art history is hopelessly Eurocentric. Just kidding, I mean, it’s true, but I’m not without hope.

Eurocentricism is a bias in favor of Western civilization. It’s a predominant tendency to view the world from a European or Anglo-American perspective. This worldview can manifest in any number of ways including: defense of colonialism and imperialism, organizing and teaching academic disciplines in a way that unfairly prioritizes the work of Westerners (cough, COUGH), or just believing that Western cultures are better than others. The technical term for this is “European exceptionalism,” and it’s the worst. C

EXHIBITION (n.)

An exhibition is a show of artwork traditionally held at a gallery, museum, or art fair. Not to say these are the only locations they take place. I’ve seen exhibitions in cafes, libraries, warehouses, and studios.

Types of exhibitions include solo shows (focused on a single artist), group shows (a group of artists showing together), or a curated show (mix of works chosen by a curator, usually related by a common theme). Exhibitions often include short essays in the form of wall text, which is generally written by the show’s curator. There might even be a catalog to accompany it—yay souvenirs! A good exhibition—like a meal or a lover—should leave you satisfied and maybe a little exhausted, but still curious and wanting to come back for more. N

F

FAUVISM (n.)

Fauvists: The wild beasts of the early 20th century. At least that’s what critics called them (fauve is “wild beast” in French) and they just rolled with it. But they were not wild in the wreckless, devil-may-care kind of way. No, instead the Fauves were wild with their painting.

Fauvism was a short-lived art movement that took off in Paris c. 1905. French artists such as André Derain, Henri Matisse, and Émilie Charmy essentially took what the Impressionists did and amped it way up. Like the Impressionists, the Fauvists focused on landscapes and leisurely subject matter. However, they got expressive with their brushwork, dove further into abstraction—and, ooohhh boy, the colors. C

DISEGNO, HEADDRESS, ORGANIC FORMS

FEMINIST ART (n.)

Every definition of feminist art seems to be a little bit (some a lotta bit) different. Some define feminist art as art that intentionally engages with feminist theory (yes), while others define feminist art as art that specifically focuses on a woman’s identity and experiences (no).

Like so many terms used to describe genres of art, the term “feminist art” is often rejected by the artists its meant to define. Many womxn1 artists refuse the label, making the excellent point that art by womxn about womxn is often labeled feminist art, while art by men about men is labeled art. Additionally, not all womxn artists wish to be categorized according to a sociopolitical movement that they may or may not adhere to (fair).

Therefore, since this is our book and we can do what we want, we’re going to take the opportunity to amend the terminology to the best of our abilities.

Feminist art is art that intentionally engages with feminist issues and is most often associated with the second-wave feminism of the 1960s and 1970s. Feminist art sought to bring women’s perspectives to the table. A particularly notable (and literal) example of this is Judy Chicago’s The Dinner Party (1974–79), a massive triangular banquet table set with thirty-nine places—each one for a different stand-up gal from history. Chicago utilized traditional domestic crafts such as ceramics and needlework to bring attention to the historical contributions of women in the arts.

The goal of feminist art is to create a dialogue surrounding issues that were brought to light by feminist theory of the 1970s, such as: women’s representation in the art world, women’s sexuality and eroticism, matriarchy, criticism of male violence and patriarchal values, and challenging historical portrayals of women in art. The work of feminist artists of the 1960s and 1970s helped to knock down barriers and provide space for future womxn artists. However, as we move into a world of intersectionality, we may want to give extra consideration to what we label feminist art.

Goddess bless. C

FIBER ART (n.)

Fiber art is art made from fiber, yarn, or fabric. It is often differentiated from the broader world of textile art, based on utility or purpose. Textiles often serve an everyday purpose. For example, that beautifully crafted quilt your grandmother made you serves the purpose of helping you achieve maximum coze during the bitterly cold winter months. Fiber art, on the other hand, prioritizes the aesthetic component of the medium and often includes using fiber in unexpected ways. You might see an immersive installation made of carefully arranged threads or, perhaps, a sculptural object made entirely of yarn and discarded cloth fragments. The end result may not have a practical purpose, but it sure looks cool. C

FIGURAL REPRESENTATION (n.)

Figural representation in art means an artist is attempting to represent figures as they appear in reality. All art represents something, but not all art is representational. That’s because, in art speak, representational denotes art that’s attempting to resemble a thing from the real world, and as you know by now, plenty of art isn’t at all concerned with representing reality. Most art—especially that made before the 20th century—falls into the figural representation category. Because it resembles images that are familiar, people tend to understand figural representation more easily than abstract art (see abstraction), and it’s a universal truth that people feel more comfortable with things they understand. As someone who hates feeling dumb or just out-of-the-know, I completely empathize. It’s a great and comfy place to start, and figural representation is a fantastic gateway drug into the more abstract stuff. N

FILM PHOTOGRAPHY (n.)

Film photography, also known as analog photography, is your classic approach to producing photographs. In fact, it was the only approach to producing photographs for over one hundred years, until the technological world of ones and zeros pushed photography into the digital realm.

For any post-Y2K babies who might not be familiar, film photography requires loading a roll of film into an analog camera. The film contains certain chemicals, and when light enters the camera it interacts with those chemicals, recording an image. After you fill a whole roll of film you take it to a photo lab and have it developed. Keep in mind a roll of film is, at max, thirty-six pictures, making it pretty difficult to capture the perfect selfie without burning through an entire roll. The development process involves more chemicals and a dark room (a room devoid of light specifically for the processing of photography images). This part is fun. Working in a darkroom is a hands-on process that can greatly affect and alter how an image turns out. Also, as 90s television proved, edgy artsy heartthrobs are always hanging out in dark rooms *wink wink*.

Although no longer common practice, analog photography is still alive and well. Many contemporary artists experiment with analog photography in a variety of ways, such as creating double exposures and using pinholes. C

FIN DE SIÈCLE (n./adj.)

Fin de siècle is French for “end of the century,” and was used as an art historical term in Europe at the end of the 19th century. The term encapsulated trends in decadence and symbolism in art, as well as literature during the 1890s. Various artistic styles and movements are grouped under fin de siècle, including Art Nouveau. Interestingly, with all its beautiful art and emphasis on living the good life, there was an underlying apocalyptic vibe during fin de siècle. The end of the century brought the idea that civilization as people knew it would end, and radical change would occur. Unfortunately, the doomsday concern of fin de siècle was somewhat accurate: with the beginning of World War I in 1914, art movements such as Art Nouveau abruptly ended in the face of war and post-1900s society was indeed radically altered. G

FLOOR PLAN (n.)

A floor plan shows the layout of a space from an aerial perspective. It is extremely valuable for architects and designers to have a to-scale drawing of the room or building they are working on. Floor plans can be two- or three-dimensional, but always represent a single floor of a given space—hence the name floor plan. N

FLUXUS (n.)

Fluxus is weird.

The word is Latin for “flowing,” so think "in flux". Lithuanian-American artist George Maciunas said that the purpose of Fluxus was to “promote a revolutionary flood and tide in art, promote living art, anti-art.” In “founding” Fluxus, Maciunas basically just gave an international collective of avant-garde artists, poets, designers, and composers a label. So, what is it? Well, it’s not a movement or style. The primary way these artists engaged with the avant-garde was through performance events or “happenings,” as they called them.

The main idea driving Fluxus was a desire to completely erase the boundary between art and life and to challenge the concept of easily commodified high art. This would deliver art to the masses. In fact, the masses—that is, the audience, were integral to Fluxus performances. Works often required audience participation, with one of the most famous examples coming from an AHB fave, Yoko Ono. In 1964, she performed Cut Piece for the first time. Ono invited the audience to cut away at her clothing as she sat completely still and expressionless on the stage. Ono would perform Cut Piece several times over the years. This is in line with the Fluxus belief in anti-art: by creating several editions or variations of a work they could deliberately devalue the object or “piece.” Ultimately, the world of fine art found a way to commodify and commercialize Fluxus art (look up French artist Ben Vautier). Capitalism, uh, finds a way? J

FOLK ART (n.)

“Folk art” is the term used to describe art that is engaged with the cultural traditions of a given community. It is often created outside the confines of the established fine art world, and what does and doesn’t constitute folk art is widely debated. Often, folk art displays a handcrafted aesthetic and can include everything from embroidery to needlework, to basketry, to woodcarving, to stone-masonry.

Furthermore, fine arts such as painting and sculpture can fall under the folk art umbrella. Anna Mary Robertson Moses (known as Grandma Moses) began painting at the age of seventy-eight and received great acclaim for her works depicting the simplicity of farm life and the rural countryside of America. Moses made these works with the lifestyle and traditions of people from this community in mind. Her series of paintings titled “Sugaring Off” depict various idyllic, snow-laden scenes and they’re lovely as hell. Makes me want to drink a mug of hot cocoa, get bundled up in my coziest gear, and go build a snowman. Moreover, works of “Sugaring Off” have been sold for as much as 1.2 million dollars—a pretty nice chunk of change even by contemporary art world standards.

The term “folk art” is decidedly more descriptive (and just better) than the terms “naïve art” “outsider art,” or “primitive art,” all of which have been used to describe this form of art-making. There are many museums dedicated entirely to the folk arts and more and more big-name art institutions have been incorporating folk art into their collections. Take some time to get acquainted with this kind of visual material. Folk art has got a lot of heart. C

FORGERY (n.)

To forge is to make a copy of something original with deceptive intentions. When someone embarks on making a forgery, it’s pretty much always illicit, which is why it is also fascinating. The art world, often consumed with concepts of originality and monetary worth, has been a breeding ground for forgery for centuries.

German printmaker and painter Albrecht Dürer was the victim of multiple forgers, who imitated his engravings so masterfully, they were able to pass them off as Dürer’s work. The forgery of his work distressed Dürer so much that he wrote an ominous threat to potential forgers at the beginning of his engraved series “Life of the Virgin” (1501–05). He warned that, should they try to replicate his work, they would find themselves in “mortal danger.” Contemporary examples of art forgery exist, too. Jean-Michel Basquiat left behind an artistic legacy when he died at just twenty-eight years old. Because he has remained a tremendously popular artist, forgeries passing work off as original Basquiats can sell for millions of dollars. G

FORM (n./v.)

Let’s not overcomplicate this: form is the basic shape of an object. Form—the verb—is synonymous with create. For example, “the child formed the play dough into the form of a pancake before attempting to eat it.” N

FORMLINE ART (n.)

Formline art is a stylistic feature of indigenous North American art, specifically from the Northwest Coast. A formline is a continuous line that contains dynamic movement as it curves, expands, and shrinks to make distinct designs. Formlines may contain figural representations of animals or they might serve as more decorative and abstract designs within a composition. Formline art is adaptable and suits various mediums including painting, engraving, and relief sculpture. The lines move in beautiful and lively ways that pull your gaze through a composition, a little journey for the eyes, if you will. G

ARCHITECTURE, ARTS AND CRAFTS MOVEMENT, MURAL

FRAME (n./v.)

How do I frame this … ? (it’s low-hanging fruit, but I had to). Frames are structures that surround and/or support things such as doors, windows, concepts, and (though not always) artwork.

The purpose of a frame can vary. Early frames were more like ornamental borders. Prior to the invention of canvas, artists generally painted on wood, and sometimes an ornamental border would be carved once the painting was complete. Frames can also range in complexity. Some artists like to include their signature or an important message for their viewers on a frame—likely something about how amazing they are. Some frames even have their own value, separate from the artwork they hold.

Today, picture frames are a staple in nearly every household. Placing something in a frame underscores its importance. Entire stores are dedicated to selling frames and there are companies dedicated to custom-framing your items. Whether it’s a 19th-century Dutch still life, a family photo, or even that pesky grad-school diploma still sitting in its mailing envelope, framing says: “Hey, this means something to me.” N

FRESCO (n.)

Fresco is Italian for “fresh” and that is exactly right because frescos are so fresh and so clean clean. Now that I’ve got that OutKast reference out of my system, allow me to be an art historian. Fresco is an ancient technique of painting quickly onto freshly laid wet-lime plaster, allowing the painting literally to become the wall as it dries. Examples of fresco painting have been seen all over the world, but we primarily associate the technique use with the ancient Mediterranean and, later, the Italian Renaissance.

There are two types of fresco painting: buon fresco, which means “true fresh” in Italian, where you paint into the wet, fresh plaster; and fresco secco, secco meaning “dry,” where you paint on to dry plaster using a binding agent such egg tempera or glue. Generally, buon fresco was the way to go, as it was way more durable and longer-lasting. Painting on wet plaster, however, is really hard to do and requires a general knowledge of chemistry and the right climate. You have to know what your pigments will look like when they dry. You can only do a section at a time, so if you mix your plaster a little bit differently on the next section you paint, your pigment will be all wrong when it dries. And how do you erase a work of art that has become a physical wall? That’s right. You tear it down and start over. Ugh. J

FRIEZE (n.)

In art and architecture, a frieze is a broad, horizontal band of sculpted and/or painted decoration. It often features as a part of the roof section of an ancient temple. Since it occupies such a prominent location, it usually conveys important information, such as an epic story or event. Examples of sculpted friezes exist all over the world, but ancient Greek and Roman buildings are some of the best known, the most popular being the Parthenon, in Athens. It was sculpted in high-relief, meaning the figures are raised high on the surface of the marble. It most likely depicts the Panathenaic procession that was a central celebration in Athens during classical times. J

FUTURISM (n.)

Futurism was an Italian artistic and social movement that had its heyday in the early 20th century. The focus was on speed. This meant embracing vehicles of industry: planes, trains, and automobiles—all relatively new forms that represented technological advancement at the time. Youth, technology, and all things exciting were Futurist favorites. Although Futurist art made a conscious effort to break from past artistic traditions, painting (which is very traditional) remained the medium of choice to represent the “universal dynamism” of the movement.

Subject matter ranged from speeding vehicles and locomotives, to the pulsating energy of the industrial city, and even to the rapidly moving legs of little dogs. Italian painter and sculptor Umberto Boccioni’s sculpture, Unique Forms of Continuity in Space (1913), best exemplifies the goals of the Futurists: man becoming the “unique” machine, driving forward through space, trails of energy emanating from his limbs and torso, toward a daring new future (Futurism!).

Unfortunately, violence and war were also exciting to the Futurists, and the movement’s leader, Filippo Tommaso Marinetti (did I mention he was also Italian?), tried to make Futurism the official state art of Fascist Italy in the 1920s. Marinetti—an angry little man who advocated violence, cruelty, and the hatred of women—failed in his crusade and, ironically enough, Futurism was later deemed “degenerate” by the Fascist regime of Mussolini, inspired by the Nazis' famous attack on the avant-garde in Germany. Tough luck, Marinetti. J

1 The term “womxn” is an alternative term for the word “woman.” It is used as an inclusive term that broadens the scope of womanhood to include femme/femme-identifying genderqueer and nonbinary individuals. The term originated at the University of California, Davis! Shout out to the alma mater of the Art History Babes.

G

GALLERIST (n.)

A gallerist is someone who works in an art gallery, be it the gallery owner, curator, or general employee. “Gallerist” just sounds fancy. Gallerists can be artists and vice versa, but the two are not mutually exclusive.

What do you envision when you picture a gallerist? Perhaps someone in all black, dramatic glasses, and an overreliance on the word “derivative”? Maybe you think of Rashida Jones’ kind and passionate character from the 2009 movie I Love You, Man. Or Amy Adams’ cold and detached gallerist role in 2016’s Nocturnal Animals.

Hollywood stereotypes aside, a gallerist’s role is to oversee the flow of the gallery, particularly in regards to exhibiting art for the purpose of promoting artists, drawing in clients, and drumming up art sales. G

GALLERY (n.)

A gallery is a room or building dedicated to the display or sale of works of art. Seems simple enough, right? Wrong! There are several deep philosophical inquiries into the concept of the gallery (hello, Inside the White Cube? It’s the Art History Babes name-dropping you yet again; see the white cube).

When you think about a typical gallery, what comes to mind? Do you envision a white room with little to no decoration? Maybe some spotlights overhead to draw attention to the art? Do you find yourself whispering for some reason? Many have critiqued the gallery-as-sacred-space mentality that controls how we look, read, and think about art. This conversation can get very complicated and political, so I will gently tiptoe out of it and leave you to consider: When you have looked at art, where was it housed? How did it feel to see it there? Did it impact how you felt about the art? How would it have looked in a room in your home? Discuss amongst yourselves. J

THE GAZE (n.)

See voyeurism.

GENRE PAINTING (n.)

Genre paintings are paintings that depict people doing normal everyday activities. Technically, people have been painting scenes from daily life (such as feasting and hunting) since ancient times. Even so, for a long while, art—and especially painting—was reserved for the religious and the rich. When painting became an art medium that was largely only accessible to the wealthy, daily activities fell out of favor for more “important” subjects and scenes. This meant that there was an overwhelming number of narrative scenes, portraits of the wealthy, royalty and/or religious figureheads, and so, so many goddamn versions of the Madonna and Child.

What we now classify as genre painting in art history became popularized by Dutch and Flemish artists during the 17th century, so that period is generally considered to be the heyday of genre. Scenes were picturesque and represented generic people rather than specific individuals. One famous genre painting by Dutch painter Judith Leyster titled A Boy and a Girl with a Cat and an Eel (1635) looks exactly as it sounds. I’m not sure exactly where this scene would be a daily occurrence, or what dear Judy was trying to say with this one, but it’s confusing, strange, and infinitely more fun to look at than another Madonna and Child. N

GEOGLYPH (n.)

A geoglyph is a large design etched into the natural landscape. They are often massive in size and some, such as Australia’s Marree Man (a very large man outlined in the ground), are visible from space. Geoglyphs can be made using stones, gravel, trees, or dirt. Adding these materials to the landscape creates a positive geoglyph, while removing one layer of earth to expose the layer of earth below creates a negative geoglyph. The difference in color that occurs with either type allows for the creation of designs and symbols. Kind of like if you strategically peeled an apple to create a … decorative apple.

People (and possibly aliens?) have been creating geoglyphs for centuries. This includes the massive land art produced by ancient civilizations, works produced by the contemporary artists of the earth art movement, and, yes, crop circles. C

GEOMETRIC ABSTRACTION (n.)

Geometric abstraction is simply abstract art made using shapes. As a style, it began in the early 20th century, but artists were making art using geometric shapes long before that. Shapes are fundamental to the way we understand form, so geometry and art are tight. The early use of shapes in art was generally decorative. For example, the ancient Greeks had a Geometric period (900–700 BCE), where figures were especially angular and stylized. Islamic decoration, in general, tends to be more pattern-based.

Twentieth-century geometric abstraction coincided with many an art movement, including abstraction, Cubism, Suprematism, Constructivism, de Stijl, and minimalism. The term generally refers to art made using geometric shapes on a non-illusionistic background. My hands-down favorite geometric artists are the Canadian-born American artist, Agnes Martin, and Iranian Monir Shahroudy Farmanfarmaian. Agnes’s works are nearly all two-dimensional, and explore the uncomplicatedness and balance found in simple forms. Monir creates three-dimensional sculptures or mirrored works that make you feel as if dimensions are multiplying before your eyes. Geometric abstraction reminds us of all the amazing insight found through the simplicity of formal qualities—in other words, shapes are cool as hell. N

GERMAN EXPRESSIONISM (n.)

German Expressionism was an early 20th century German art movement that placed an emphasis on emotions and ideas over depicting reality naturalistically. Artists wanted to show big emotions and did this with energetic brushstrokes, bold colors, simplified and stylized forms, and a focus on provocative subject matter. There are several potential theories as to why this movement became so popular in Germany, but a leading explanation is that the style provoked catharsis for artists seeking to express the anxiety and despair felt before and during World War I.

A group that called themselves “Die Brücke,” or “The Bridge” in German, are considered the founders of the expressionist movement in Germany. Forming in Dresden, in 1905, its members saw themselves as the “bridge” between the past and the present as they drew great inspiration from Europe’s rich artistic tradition. They studied the painting and printmaking techniques of German masters such as Albrecht Dürer and Matthias Grünewald alongside modern examples of expressive colorists such as Vincent van Gogh and Henri Matisse. The results were sharp and sometimes violently clashing colors that jolted the viewer into experiencing a particular emotion. Nudity was also a big fave and Die Brücke made no qualms about depicting sexual themes (although to our period eye one hundred years later, some of these works are mega questionable and problematic). Die Brücke went on to become an indispensable part of a greater Expressionist tradition and would go on to influence many future artists who looked to German Expressionism as a crucial part of modern art. J

ALTARPIECE, RELIGIOUS ICON, TEXT ART

GESAMTKUNSTWERK (n.)

Gesamtkunstwerk is German for “total work of art.” The term is used across disciplines including architecture, literature, music, and the visual arts. Essentially, it’s another way of saying a work is the total package. In certain cases, this can be a work that literally blends multiple artforms together: performing arts, painting, and literature for example. In other cases, a Gesamtkunstwerk could relate to an architect’s design for a building that takes into consideration acoustics, ambiance, structure, and interior decoration—a total work of art. As with so many art-related terms, Gesamtkunstwerk is a subjective label but it is a valuable tool for describing a multisensory experience. Plus, it’s fun to say. G

GESSO (n.)

The unsung hero of painting, gesso acts as a primer for any number of surfaces (wood, canvas, panels, and so on) that are to be painted on. In olden times, gesso was made from a mix of animal glue (usually rabbit-skin glue—if you are familiar with our logo, you’ll know we don’t like that!), chalk, and white pigment. An artist would then use this mixture to coat a surface with an off-white base that would help to absorb all manner of painting mediums, from tempera paint to oil paint to water-based paints. It could even be used to prep surfaces for the application of gold leaf (which we do like). Today, you can buy acrylic gesso at the store and save yourself a whole lot of trouble. However, many traditionalists refuse to call this commercial product gesso at all because of its nonabsorbency and incompatibility with egg tempera and some oil paints. Sigh … artists, I swear…. J

GESTALT THEORY (n.)

Oooh visual perception. Gestalt theory comes to us from the world of psychology. It was developed during the early 20th century as a way to better make sense of how humans perceive our material reality and, ultimately, how that affects our psychological realities. In the present day, Gestalt theory is a fundamental concept taught in design courses.

The theory says that humans are more likely to understand an image as an organized whole rather than as a sum of its parts. Therefore, the goal when designing images using Gestalt theory is to create a cohesive, unified image that the human brain can easily understand. The six Gestalt design principles are: similarity, continuation, closure, proximity, figure/ground, and symmetry/order.

You are likely to encounter examples of these principles all the time, every single day of your life. Surely you’ve seen some version of Rubin’s vase? This image shows two faces in profile, looking inward at each other. The negative space between the two faces creates the image of a vase. However, the human eye can only perceive one of these things at a time. This is an example of figure/ground. We humans see foreground and background as two different planes of focus. Therefore, when looking at this optical illusion, we can only understand it as the unified image of two faces looking at each other or as a vase, but we cannot perceive both simultaneously. C

GILDING (v.)

See gold leaf.

GIORGIO VASARI (human)

Giorgiooo! The OG art historian.

Giorgio Vasari was an Italian 16th-century painter, architect, and historian. He wrote The Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects aka The Lives of the Artists aka The Lives—a series of biographies of artists of the Italian Renaissance. The Lives is often deemed the most influential book ever written on Renaissance art history and is considered the foundational text for the discipline of art history as a whole. Thanks, George. C

GLAZE (n./v.)

Another multipurpose word! To glaze is to overlay or cover something with a smooth, shiny coating or varnish. In the world of ceramics, a glaze can be the vitreous substance that is fused onto the surface of clay pottery through firing, giving it a shiny, protective coating. You can also glaze a painting by applying a thin topcoat of transparent paint to a work. This can modify the tone of an underlying color, making it more vivid and shiny. The term “glaze” can also refer to a loss of brightness or animation, as in “boy, my eyes are starting to glaze over with boredom from reading this entry.” Sorry, folks, they can’t all be bangers. J

GLOBALIZATION (n.)

“Globalization” is a term as broad and vast as the Earth herself, and there are various debates about its positive and negative effects. With technology and industrial growth, we are living in a world of increasing accessibility. People are able to travel to more places than ever before, and we can now access far reaches of the globe via technology.

A relatively new concept in the art world, globalization came into play in the late 20th century. Artists and curators conscious of globalization often think about global identities and how art can connect people all over the world. Art production and sales have become far more international, as opposed to being largely local. You can see examples of the globalizing art market with various online art sales platforms that sell all over the world or art fairs with venues in multiple international locations. The positive side of globalization is that it breaks away from the Euro/Western-centric art canon, celebrates art produced all over the world, and reckons with postcolonial artistic identities. Artist Yinka Shonibare, for example, is a British-Nigerian artist whose work visually questions what traditional art looks like in our blended, global modern world.

But there are two sides to every coin, and there is also a side to globalization that elicits fear and wariness. The phenomenon is viewed as being fueled by corporate greed and billionaires who drive art sales to specific regions that are already quite wealthy. When only a handful of big, affluent cities are dubbed art centers, this excludes artists, art professionals, and the art market from developing in smaller and/or less economically rich places. In short, you shouldn’t have to move to a big city like London or New York to get an art-related job, but oftentimes this is the reality.

Globalization gives us a lot to chew on, doesn’t it? G

GOLD LEAF (n.)

It’s hard to resist the universal allure of gold. Artists are not immune so, naturally, they figured out a way to paint with gold. You read that right. Not using gold paint, but painting with actual gold. They use the material gold leaf—actual gold that has been hammered down over and over until it’s thinner than tissue paper. Artists apply gold leaf using glue, an action known as gilding. Gold that’s hammered down, but not quite to the thinness of gold leaf, is called gold foil. Because gold can be safely ingested, chefs even use gold leaf to decorate fancy dishes. In the wise words of Minnesota-based rap duo Atmosphere, “when life gives you lemons, you paint that shit gold” (leaf). N

GOTHIC (n./adj.)

Hearing the term “Gothic” conjures up images of dark cathedrals with spires, stained-glass windows, and kids wearing all black clothing and eyeliner. All of which are technically correct. At some point, Gothic art got a bad rap—probably around the same time people started referring to the Middle Ages as the “Dark Ages.”

The word “Gothic” has a long history, beginning with the original Goths. The Visigoths and the Ostrogoths were early East Germanic tribes who the ancient Romans fought back in the 4th–6th centuries BCE. Romans considered the Goths to be barbarians (a name they used liberally for pretty much anyone “other”), but the Visigoths must’ve been pretty skilled warriors considering they sacked Rome in 410 CE. We won’t go too far down that road, but it’s important to note the source of the term to understand exactly the insult that Renaissance historians were aiming to inflict when they named the recent style of the Middle Ages: Gothic.

Gothic architecture was popularized in France beginning in the 12th century. Unlike the other widespread medieval style, Romanesque, Gothic pervaded popular culture. Architecture, books, and paintings appeared in the Gothic style, but so did everyday items such as clothing, chairs, and spoons. It also spread internationally, becoming a popular style across Europe.

The architectural trend began with Gothic cathedrals, but eventually spread to secular buildings. Elements of Gothic architecture include spires, pointed arches, flying buttresses, stained-glass and rose windows. The style fell out of favor in the 16th century, with the beginning of the Renaissance and a return to a more classical aesthetic. Then some architects in 19th-century England decided to bring back the spires and a Gothic Revival happened for a short while. There’s even a genre of literature dubbed Gothic fiction, which centers on themes of darkness, romance, and melancholy. More recently, the term “Gothic” is commonly used to describe post-punk rock music, often stereotyped as people wearing black clothing with spikes—which are basically just tiny spires. N

GOTHIC REVIVAL (n.)

Gothic’s back baby! At least it was, for roughly 100 years starting in the late 1740s.

Gothic Revival, also referred to as Victorian Gothic or neo-Gothic was a popular architectural style of the 18th and 19th centuries that took inspiration from the Gothic style of the Middle Ages.

The resurrection of Gothic style was, in many ways, a visual response to Enlightenment thinking. Romanticism arose as a popular ideology, acting as a counter-balance during the Age of Reason. This involved a harkening back to the good ole days (the Middle Ages, according to Romantics). Romantics found value in emotion and the mystical, and this challenged all the reason and logic of the Enlightenment. And what’s more romantic than pointed arches and flying buttresses??? No really, tell me. C

An effin’ rose window. That’s what. N

GRAFFITI (n./v.)

Graffiti is an artform as old as time. Since people have been able to write their names, they have loved writing them on walls. There’s something empowering about it—it says “I am here!” or perhaps, more accurately, “I was here!” If you have a small child, you’ve likely experienced this phenomenon firsthand. No matter how many times you tell them no, your clean eggshell-white dining-room walls end up covered with crayon. And the thing is, you can’t even be mad, because a blank wall is an objectively great place to write!

While there are endless examples of graffiti throughout history, the contemporary graffiti aesthetic is often characterized by the use of spray paint or marker pens, and is commonly associated with hip-hop culture and the anti-establishment punk movement. Several types of graffiti exist, including tags, stencils, throw ups, posters, and stickers.

The word “graffiti” has long been used derogatorily to describe a specific type of vandalism. In other words, if an artist tags a wall without permission by the wall’s owner, there may be legal implications. The term “street art,” on the other hand, is often used to describe commissioned public art or that produced with permission from a building’s owner. The line here gets real blurry. If a high-profile street artist tags a wall without permission, it may receive acclaim from the art world, whereas the work of a lesser-known artist is more likely to be removed or painted over.

The argument surrounding graffiti is a complicated one, and it’s obvious why an artist may have a differing opinion than a police officer. Not saying I support the destruction of property, but I do support art … and I am a bit of an anarchist. C

GRAPHIC NOVEL (n.)

Despite what the word “graphic” may imply, a graphic novel is not a sexy sex book (although there are plenty of sexy graphic novels). In this instance, the word “graphic” is referring to highly detailed, vivid pictures. A graphic novel is a story presented like a comic strip—in a series of detailed illustrations often with the help of captions or emotionally expressive thought bubbles.

The difference between graphic novels and comic books is subtle. While a comic book often tells a story in a periodical format released over several issues (think of those classic superhero comic books they won’t stop making movies about), a graphic novel is released in a longer book format and finishes up the story in one or two books.

Sometimes graphic novelists work individually, creating the story and designing the images. On other occasions a writer will pair up with an illustrator to produce a graphic novel. For example, English writer Alan Moore is widely considered to be one of the greatest in comic-book history, having created classics such as V for Vendetta (1982–89). However, Moore typically works with a creative team when producing these graphic novels. In V for Vendetta, for example, the illustrator was David Lloyd.

Visual storytelling is the basis for a helluva lot of art throughout history. Graphic novels are a contemporary example of the seamless connection between books and art. C

GROTTESCHI (n.)

Grotteschi is Italian for “grotesque” and, despite what we may associate with the word, its origins are not, in fact, gross. Roman Emperor Nero was a big A-hole, so after he died Romans left his half-constructed palace in ruins and tried their best to forget about him. But Nero’s Golden House (Domus Aurea, as it was known), was later discovered during the Italian Renaissance buried underground in what was referred to as a grotto (cave or hollow). Nero’s Golden House was full of sculptural and painted decorations depicting mythical creatures that blended human, animal, and plant forms together. Italian Renaissance artists were all about this style of art, which they called “grotteschi” since it was discovered in a grotto. See? Not grotesque at all. The style soon became the hippest form of decoration in 16th-century art. A few centuries later, the term “grotesque” expanded in meaning to refer to figures that were somehow fantastical, weird, ugly, or disgusting, and so on—closer to our perception of the grotesque today. Who would have guessed that art in Nero’s buried palace would have inspired such a fascinating art and etymological history? No one, that’s who. G

GUILD (n.)

Guilds developed during the Middle Ages as professional trade groups. As towns and cities began to grow, guilds emerged in tandem with urban development and helped regulate trade. There were guilds for painters, sculptors, goldsmiths, carpenters, doctors, and merchants. You had to be a member of a guild in your town or city in order to produce and sell whatever your trade was. This meant that outside competition was limited, and there was an emphasis on local professionals and the services they provided to their area.

Guilds were typically religious organizations, often dedicated to a patron saint. Saint Luke was both a painter and a doctor according to the Bible, so he was a patron saint for both painter and medical guilds. These guilds would organize feast days in Luke’s honor and commission or produce art that hailed him. Guilds were all about working hard, sharing business with your bros, giving back to the community, and repping your saint. G

BYOBU SCREEN, MOSAIC, POLYPTYCH (see Diptych)

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HANDSCROLL (n.)

A long, narrow, horizontal strip used in East Asian calligraphy or paintings, a handscroll is read flat on a table, in sections beginning from the right and working toward the left. It depicts a continuous narrative or journey. Usually painted on paper with a protective and decorative silk backing, by the Eastern Han period (20–220 CE) the handscroll became a standard format for paintings in ancient China.

Poems, flowers, stories accompanied by bucolic scenery, and scenes depicting aspects of life in the imperial court are all common subjects. A famous example, titled Admonitions of the Instructress to the Court Ladies (c. 5th–8th century), illustrates a poetic text written to provide advice to the women in the imperial court. The scroll depicts images and stories of life in the court, including exemplary behavior of historical palace ladies, and the consequences of not following the advice of the author. In one scene, the emperor rejects an imperial consort with a look of disdain. In the next scene, the consort reflects on her conduct, probably regretting not checking herself before she wrecked herself. J

HANGING SCROLL (n.)

An East Asian tradition (and not to be confused with a handscroll), this kind of scroll hangs on a wall, in a similar fashion to a painted work in the Western tradition. Not intended for permanent display, they are rotated according to season or occasion. Both handscrolls and hanging scrolls are works meant to be appreciated, contemplated, meditated upon, and then eventually put away. J

HARD-EDGE ABSTRACTION (n.)

Abstraction but e d g y. (So sorry for the awful dad joke.)

Hard-edge abstraction is geometric abstraction meets color-field painting. In the late 1950s, a group of artists, largely based in California, wanted to move away from the expressive, gestural style that was so popular in contemporary abstraction. Instead, hard-edge abstraction focused on flat shapes defined by hard, clean edges. This style was also commonly referred to as “California Hard-edge” (which sounds more like the name of a 1990s surf punk band) and was practiced by artists such as Karl Benjamin, June Harwood, and Frederick Hammersley. C

THE HARLEM RENAISSANCE (n.)

The Harlem Renaissance was an arts explosion that arose in 1920s New York and petered out during the Great Depression—because not having any money can really hinder creativity (#supportartists). This Renaissance had everything: poetry and literature, music, drama, dance, fashion, philosophy, and visual art.

A dynamic self-expression of African-American culture and identity, the movement marked the first time in modern American history that black artists were celebrated on a large scale. It explored themes such as the “double-consciousness” of the African-American experience, celebration of African cultural heritage, the experience of discrimination, challenging of stereotypes, and performing black identity in a white world. In 1925, philosopher Alain LeRoy Locke called for the development of a new phase of distinctly African-American culture represented by an independent community. Self-expression was to be a means of achieving personal freedom and overcoming internalized beliefs caused by oppression.

The Harlem Renaissance was built by creatives of all kinds. Augusta Savage was a sculptor, educator, and activist. In the 1930s, Augusta founded the Savage School of Arts and Crafts and the Harlem Artists Guild to continue fostering creativity during the difficult economic times of the Great Depression and to support a second generation of Harlem artists. Even though the depression negatively affected the momentum of the Harlem Renaissance, and gentrification in Harlem has greatly altered the vibe of the community in recent decades, the movement left behind it a legacy of impactful work that remains integral to African American art history. C

HEADDRESS (n.)

A headdress, by definition, is any garment worn on a person’s head. While this definition is broad enough to include trucker hats, visors and those hats with cup holders and straws—I want to focus on the ceremonial headdress. You know the one I’m referring to—often large, regal, and worn by leaders across the world to represent power; the cousin to the crown.

Headdresses are the ultimate statement piece. Think about it … when have you ever heard of a casual headdress? Never. Putting a fancy accessory on your head to represent authority must be pretty universal, because rulers from every country have had their own versions of the headdress.

Native American headdresses vary depending on tribe and are often beautifully and delicately crafted. The Sioux tribe was one of the few who wore large, feathered headdresses, or warbonnets. The feathers came from golden eagles, each one earned through an act of bravery. Queen Nefertiti of ancient Egypt had headdresses so epic, that Beyoncé TWICE wore replicas of them during her 2018 Coachella performance to pay homage and draw on some of those intensely powerful queen vibes. So, take it from Queen N & Queen B: headdress = power. Disclaimer: that’s not permission for anyone to wear native or native-inspired headdresses to music festivals (you know who you are). N

HELLENISTIC (adj.)

The term “Hellenistic” refers to a historical period lasting around 300 years, and during which ancient Greek culture was damn flourishing. The Hellenistic period began after the death of Alexander the Great, lover to many and conqueror of much land. The Greeks were expanding their empire, and these ancient colonizers were everywhere, including parts of Africa, Asia, the Middle East, and swaths of Europe—it was a big time for Greece.

As a result of their territorial expansion, other aspects of ancient Greek culture also grew, including art production. The main artforms produced during the Hellenistic period were sculpture, painting, mosaic, clay pottery, and architecture. Because the Greeks were feeling themselves during this Hellenistic period, there is a great deal of recorded history, both textually and visually, of their antics—for example, sculptures depicting all the battles the Greeks won. G

HIERARCHICAL SCALE (n.)

Hierarchical scale, sometimes referred to as hieratic scale, is an artistic convention that uses size to convey the importance of a subject. For whatever reason, humans tend to associate “huge” with “very important” (think skyscrapers, monster trucks, and a certain part of the male anatomy). Hierarchical scale was often used in ancient Egyptian art to depict power and status. The most important person in the scene was really big, the least important was really small. At least when it comes to hierarchical scale, bigger is, in fact, better. C

HIEROGLYPH (n.)

Hieroglyphs (from the Greek hiero meaning “holy,” and glyph, meaning “markings” or “writings”) were used as the ancient Egyptian alphabet, and either worked phonetically or symbolically to represent the words they depicted. For example, an image of an Egyptian vulture does not literally represent a bird, but rather the letter “A” because of the sound it relates to. That being said, the hieroglyph that represents the sun, looks like a sun and does not have to do with the sound, so it’s kind of a mixed bag.

By the 5th century CE, hieroglyphs were no longer practiced in Egypt and the ability to write and read them was lost, until they were decoded approximately 1,400 years later. The eventual translation of hieroglyphs came from a cultural battle of wits between the English and the French in the 18th century. Napoléon Bonaparte was campaigning in Egypt in order to gain more territory in the East Mediterranean and press up on England’s control over India. While preparing to lay the foundation of a fort, Napoléon’s army discovered what is referred to as the Rosetta Stone, a decree made during the reign of Ptolemy V. Inscribed into the stone are three languages: hieroglyphs, demotic, and ancient Greek.

Both the French and English wanted to crack the code of the mysterious hieroglyphs, but the stone ended up in British hands. Plot twist: Despite British ownership of the stone, it was a Frenchman who realized hieroglyphs were not solely ideographic (picture writing) but also related to the sound of ancient Egyptian language. Jean-François Champollion announced his findings to the world in 1822. G

HUDSON RIVER SCHOOL (n.)

First off, not a school. The Hudson River School was just a group of dudes in the mid-19th century living and working in the Hudson River Valley of New York who loved to paint landscapes. To be fair, many of them attended the same school— The National Academy of Design, and even shared the same studio space.

It all started with a meeting of the Bread and Cheese Club. This very real, very elite club was made up of writers, scholars, and artists, such as Hudson River School poster boy, Thomas Cole. The connections made during these bread and cheese gatherings led to the unified style of American art known as the Hudson River School.

The Hudson River School was greatly influenced by Transcendentalism (You ever read Walden by Thoreau? The book about the guy who goes into the woods for two years and thinks? That’s like the holy book of American transcendentalism). Transcendentalists are all about nature—standing in it, appreciating it, and painting it. The Hudson River School painters harnessed this ethos to depict the beauty of the wild American landscape, unmarred by industrialization.

The Hudson River School wanted to reject the influence of European art and establish a national identity. However, the movement’s unofficial founder, Thomas Cole didn’t agree with the fervent economic and industrial expansion of the time. Not to mention, the paintings of the Hudson River School are pretty in line with European Romanticism. Suffice it to say, the works of the Hudson River School paint a complicated picture of westward expansion. Images of individual explorers or small pioneer settlements are set against glorious, awe-inspiring landscapes, yet the people are always very small, to evoke a sense of the sublime. “You are tiny, nature is big and powerful, bow to her beauty. And while you do that, I’ll be over here manifesting destiny, no need to be concerned.” – The Hudson River School (minus Tommy Cole maybe). C

HUMANISM (n.)

Humanism is an “ism” that is all about humans—our agency, our value, and our intellectual capability. It is a philosophical movement that emphasizes individualism, human freedom, and education.

Elements of humanism have been around in one form or another since ancient times, present in the philosophy of cultures from all over the world. In art history, humanism is often discussed in terms of the Italian Renaissance. In this case, it is aptly named “Renaissance Humanism.” This is because the period was a hot time for the intellectual, and humanist ideals were cleverly woven into Renaissance art. You may be, like, “Whaaat? I thought Renaissance art was all about God and stuff.” Well, humanism, at least in its early incarnations, didn’t reject religion. Instead, it emphasized human power in the universe as an extension of God’s power. By emphasizing individual ability, humanism preached that humans were not meant just to obey some almighty power. Instead they were supposed to think about stuff and learn things and create—just as the artists and scientists of the Italian Renaissance did, who we still make such a big deal about today.

You can’t talk Renaissance Humanism without talking Raphael’s School of Athens (1509–11). This fresco is wild with intellectualism. In this painting, housed in the library of the Apostolic Palace of the Vatican, Rome, Raphael painted every great classical thinker he could in that crowded composition. We’ve got Plato and Aristotle in the center, surrounded by a major “who’s who” of smart people from classical antiquity. Euclid, Pythagoras, Ptolemy—they’re all there, holding books and chatting it up in a glorious, barrel-vaulted, classically-inspired corridor. Raphael’s shout out to human achievement, if you will. C

COLUMN, PATTERN, VIDEO ART

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ICONOCLASM (n.)

Historically, icons have been known to offend from time to time. Reasons vary, but basically it boils down to believing that these symbols of the divine can be more hurtful than helpful when it comes to worship. Now this “problem” can be approached from either end: prohibit the creation of icons (aniconism) or destroy already existing icons (iconoclasm).

In Islam, this manifests as aniconism, or the prohibition of representing sentient beings (don’t represent them, just don’t). In part, this stems from the belief that creating living beings is God’s prerogative. Additionally, there’s concern that representing figures like prophets or the Big Man Himself leads to idolatry—worshipping the image rather than the being it symbolizes. Historically, fear of idolatry has served as a reason for implementing iconoclasm—the systematic destruction or rejection of idols.

It’s important to underscore that not representing icons in the first place is very different than destruction for the purpose of controlling a political or religious narrative. In 2001, the Taliban destroyed the Buddhas of Bamyan in Afghanistan. Tactics like this are designed to inflict fear and stamp out rival belief systems—pretty lame. Instead, aniconism has led to alternative forms of representation. People got creative and invented an entirely new Islamic decorative style—pretty rad! N

ICONOGRAPHY (n.)

Iconography is the study of images and their symbolic meaning. It can also refer to a symbol or image itself, as the term comes from the Greek word for image, ikon. Throughout the course of art history, artists have used specific images to convey messages. Say you’re looking at a 17th-century Dutch still life painting: there’s a beautiful arrangement of flowers, but some of the blooms droop, browning with decay. It’s not like someone forgot to switch it out with a fresh bouquet; this was intentional. The iconography suggests that this is a reminder to viewers that life is fleeting and we’re all gonna die (see memento mori, vanitas). Numerous examples of iconography exist in art. This is because images contain symbols, and symbols have the ability to visually communicate with humans in very powerful ways. G

IDEALIZATION (n.)

Artistic idealization is just another form of representation. When art is idealized, it means that the subject is represented in an ideal (rather than real) way. Artists can romanticize people, places and things at their discretion, and artistic idealization can range from subtle changes to extreme ones—just think of it as the original Photoshop.

Ancient Greek sculpture is notoriously hot, but that doesn’t mean that ancient Greeks were all walking around with perfectly chiseled muscles and features. Certain civilizations practiced artistic idealization instead of representing peoples’ likeness due to a belief that physical attributes mirrored moral character (just imagine). With physical and internal beauty being seen as one in the same, artists depicted people’s moral character over their actual likeness, which explains the overabundance of hotness. The ancient Romans used idealization for continuity. An idealized portrait of the emperor was more easily reproducible and recognizable than a natural one, and it was more important for citizens across the empire to see a consistent image than a realistic one (see verism). N

ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPT (n.)

Illuminated manuscripts are handwritten and decorated books, made before the good ole printing press came along in the 15th century. Muslim and Christian devotional books were popular in the Middle East and western Europe. In order to make the text more alive, artists decorated letters, designed intricate borders, and painted little scenes within the pages of manuscripts. They are called “illuminated” because the painted decorations inside appeared to light up the pages with vibrant colors and paints made from precious metals such as gold and silver. Islamic illuminated manuscripts featured beautiful and elaborate calligraphy. Artists painting Christian illuminated manuscripts often included figurative scenes and portraits. I love how detailed and intimate illuminated manuscripts are because, unlike altarpieces, they were not painted on a large scale to be viewed by a lot of people at once. Instead, they were made for a far more personal purpose, such as reading the Koran or passages from the Bible. Illuminated manuscripts are an early example of the vital and seamless relationship between books and art. G

ILLUSIONISM (n.)

Illusionism happens when an artist wants to mimic the natural world through painting. Skilled artists can use certain techniques to make 2D work appear to be 3D.

Illusionistic art involves an unspoken agreement between artist and viewer that the artist will do their very best to trick the viewer into a glimpse of three-dimensional reality, or that the artwork is a continuation of the natural world. In return, the viewer promises to play along. A suspension of disbelief, if you will. While the natural world as we experience it plays a role in illusionistic art, the understanding of illusion remains the most important factor. An illusion of reality and actual reality are two very different things. You wouldn’t go to see a horror film if you thought that whatever terror chasing your protagonist could cross through the screen and come for you next. In the same way, it’s extremely disappointing when an illusion lacks conviction. We agree to the illusion of being terrified, only when we can trust the effectiveness and safety of the illusion. Additionally, “illusionism” as a term doesn’t cheapen the labor and skill that go into planning and executing a painting with such lofty goals, while the consensual deception allows for art to be experienced without discomfort. N

ILLUSTRATION (n.)

This is an illustrated book. While you’ve been reading along and chuckling at our collective wit, you’ve also been looking at Carmen Casado’s stunning illustrations.

An illustrator provides a visual interpretation of text. Illustrations are powerful tools for bringing text to life through drawings or paintings. Images and text have a harmonious relationship and illustrations can really enhance a text, making for a more multisensory experience. However, illustrations are not solely relegated to text, as they can also interpret more social constructs, such as politics and pop culture. American comedian Abbi Jacobson, co-creator of the hilarious TV series “Broad City” (2014–19) is also an illustrator and made a book illustrating what she imagines famous people keep in their pockets and bags—brilliant. This is all to say that illustration has personality. It’s an artform that can make us laugh, make us think, and explain things to us: such as art terminology. *wink wink* G

IMPASTO (n.)

Have you ever gotten up close to a painting, looked at it, and thought: “Those brushstrokes are sensual as hell.”? That’s how I feel about impasto, a painting style that involves applying thick, textured strokes of paint using a brush or palette knife or other tool of your choice. It adds layers of texture to create an additional dimension and sometimes even casts shadows. The dry time for impasto varies, depending on the type and thickness of the paint used. Old school oil paint takes days to weeks. Luckily, advances in paint technology have yielded a magical gel. When applied to thick impasto, the paint dries in a matter of hours.

Italian Renaissance and Baroque artists used impasto to represent small sections of texture, such as folds in clothing, water droplets, or wrinkled skin. With modern art, intentions became more emotive. Artists felt they could convey emotion through the gesture of a brushstroke and that a painting should be more than a smooth window into illusionism. Ultimately, impasto adds dimension to the otherwise flat surface of a painting—literally and/or metaphorically. N

IMPERIALISM (n.)

Imperialism is when one nation decides to exert control over another nation. Historically, this has largely been driven by military force and acts as a way to spread one country’s culture and geographical territory into other places—not unlike colonialism.

The word “imperialism” comes from the Latin word imperium, meaning rule or sovereignty. Empires stretch far back into our collective human history and have existed all over the world. The Roman Empire extensively recorded and celebrated its imperial conquests through art that included triumphal arches, columns, paintings, and mosaics. The ancient Romans weren’t the only ones who made imperial art, but they do serve as a solid example of imperial art and its impact.

In the late 1930s, the Italian dictator Benito Mussolini and his fascist goons invaded Ethiopia and claimed it as their own territory. Mussolini even went so far as to say it marked the rebirth of the Roman Empire and likened himself to the Roman Emperor Augustus … gross. He chose to commemorate this expansion of imperialism by commissioning large mosaics depicting Italy’s defeat of Ethiopia in an ancient Roman style. We all know how things ended for Mussolini, but you can still see some of the mosaics today in Rome, in an area Mussolini once dubbed “Imperial Square” (subtle). G

CUNEIFORM, FEMINIST ART, ZINE

IMPRESSIONISM (n.)

The style of painting known as Impressionism developed in 1860s France. Largely considered one of the first truly modern art movements, Impressionism was about capturing the visual impression of a moment. You can also think of an impression as a sketch or preliminary drawing. French Impressionist artists such as Claude Monet and Édouard Manet (yes, they are two different dudes) used loose brushwork and lightened color palettes to create a visual effect that evaded clarity of form and captured the quickly shifting nature of light and color.

Looking at an Impressionist painting kind of reminds me of what happens when I take off my thick-lensed, high-prescription glasses and gaze at the world with my naturally poor eyesight. To be clear, I’m not throwing shade at Impressionism. At times, I genuinely enjoy looking at the world through my own blurry, blurry eyes. It can be a fun practice in shifting visual perception and observing what happens as your eyes refocus. Something similar happens when looking at an Impressionist painting—the image (or the impression of the image) changes dramatically depending on the lighting and your proximity to the work. This effect is expertly explained by the great Cher Horowitz of Clueless fame: “She’s a full on Monet—from far away its okay, but up close it’s a big ole mess.” C

INSTAGRAM ART (n.)

Instagram art is not necessarily just posting art on Instagram, although that can be an element of it. Instagram art involves using the social media platform as a creative tool for expression (just like painting, sculpture, video, or any other artform). This can include, but is not limited to: photo editing, feed curation, use of visual narrative, designing aesthetically interesting Instagram stories, meme creation, or posting poetic or thought-provoking captions. Instagram art is also inherently performative, as it involves intentionally presenting an image of oneself to an audience—in other words, performance art. Instagram art is essentially virtual mixed media.

The idea that Instagram can be considered art attracts a lot of haters (but to be fair, whenever something or someone attracts haters it’s a good sign they’re doing something interesting). Perhaps it’s because viewing Instagram as an artform cuts out the museum or gallery as the middleman. I can open up the app on my phone at any time, and not only look at the work of the creatives I follow, but I can interact with it! Social media platforms such as Instagram take accessibility to the next level. Creators have easier access to an audience that may connect with their creative output, and this makes establishing oneself as a professional artist much simpler.

It’s impossible to tell what the future holds for Instagram, and whether or not Instagram art will stand the test of time. Right now, however, a whole lot of people are using the platform as an artistic outlet, and many have made it into a creative career for themselves. As someone who has spent several years developing an Instagram presence, and is constantly learning and experimenting with new and different ways to put the platform to creative use, I can attest that it is, in fact, an artform. C

INSTALLATION (n.)

I work in an art gallery and one of my favorite gallery girl things to say is “I’ve got an install tomorrow” or “I can’t hang out tonight, I’m exhausted after my install.” I know it sounds pretentious, but it’s fun, just let me have it. When I say these super cool phrases about my work, I’m talking about installing a gallery exhibition. An installation involves getting works of art ready to be displayed publicly in spaces such as museums and galleries. It’s often a very physical process of hanging, moving, and arranging art.

Installation art refers to a single artwork that is often large-scale and made specifically for a given site. Portuguese textile artist Vanessa Barragão’s 20-foot-wide (6 meter) tapestry depicting the world in beautiful, textural yarn at London’s Heathrow Airport is a great example of this. Barragão was commissioned to make this piece and she designed it specifically with the location in mind.

Just as the act of installing a surround-sound system in the living room is hands on, art installations are very hands on, too. Even if you don’t work in a gallery or museum, I encourage you to use my line, “I’m just so exhausted after my install” to get out of obligations such as a Tinder date—they’ll be confused sure, but they can’t really argue with you. G

INSTITUTIONAL CRITIQUE (n.)

Do you find yourself frustrated, angry, or just plain confused about the ways in which the art world operates? Well never fear, institutional critique is here to call out the bullshit. Artists working within the realm of institutional critique make art that raises questions about how and why art institutions operate in the way they do.

For example, conceptual performance artist Andrea Fraser’s 1989 performance Museum Highlights: A Gallery Talk consisted of the artist pretending to be a tour guide at the Philadelphia Museum of Art. Fraser led a tour group through the museum while bombastically describing not only the art, but also the building’s toilets and closets. This work satirically brought attention to the role of the museum docent, how the docent affects a population of museumgoers, and how that affects cultural understanding as a whole.

Institutional critique may challenge claims that the museum is a neutral space, acknowledge the colonial history of object acquisitions (a lot of art has been stolen in times of war and colonization), or bring to light how venture capitalists control what art gets made, displayed, and sold. If a particular artwork is addressing oppression, but is then placed in an oppressive institution, what does that mean? A big complicated mess is what that means, but hopefully one we can learn from. I’m not going to claim to have the answers necessary to fix the deeply ingrained injustices of the art world, but I will give a huge shout out to institutional critique artists—thanks for doing the important work. Y’all are the real heroes. C

INTERTEXTUALITY (n.)

Let’s talk about text baby

Intertextuality is a literary device wherein an author uses another text to shape their own text’s meaning. The most obvious and intentional forms of this practice include the use of quotes, allusion, translation, or parody. One text uses another, previous, text in order to create a connection, which then affects the audience’s understanding of that text. Literature and visual art operate in similar ways. They are both methods of sharing ideas and telling stories, and they often interact with one another. So it’s fitting that the term “intertextuality” made its way into the art world.

A straightforward example of intertextuality in art is the widespread parody of graphic artist Shepard Fairey’s 2008 Hope poster designed for the presidential campaign of Barack Obama. The iconic poster depicts a stylized portrait of Obama rendered in blue, red, and beige. The word “HOPE” is written across the bottom. Other artists have parodied this poster endlessly, using portraits of such varied characters as Batman’s the Joker, Mr. Peanutbutter from the “BoJack Horseman” adult animation series, and former president, George W. Bush. Fairey’s original image is undeniably powerful and intrinsically political. Any parody of the image is automatically working with the work’s original context to create a new meaning. It’s intertextual.

In the last half century or so, the term “intertextuality” has broadened in meaning to describe the ways in which the whole of culture interacts—be it text, art, music, theater, or cultural tradition. It is a massively important concept in the postmodern world. This is because postmodernism brought to light the idea that nothing is created in a vacuum and that nothing is truly original. All art interacts and stems from that which came before it.

“Intertextuality” is also becoming an increasingly popular term in academic circles, especially because interdisciplinary studies are so hot right now. And the interaction of different disciplines involves the interaction of …

… text, baby. C

ISLAMIC DECORATION (n.)

The Islamic faith bars the use of traditional figural representation, so artists got clever and crafted a new decorative style that worked with the religiously sanctioned aniconism, rather than against it. Islamic decoration falls into one of three categories: geometric, arabesque, and calligraphic.

The use of geometry symbolizes rationality and is often used to reference important numbers in the Islamic faith. Arabesque decoration refers to the interlaced patterns of forms and foliage that are commonly used motifs in Islamic decoration. Arabic calligraphy replaces figures. Not only is it beautiful, but it provides great clarity as to who is being represented—assuming viewers can read Arabic (I am not one of those viewers). It’s not uncommon to see a combination of these styles, as seen in the Great Mosque of Selim II in Edirne, Turkey, with its elaborately decorated dome. Tilework and mosaic often decorate Islamic structures as they complement all three decorative styles. N

ITALIAN RENAISSANCE (n.)

The Italian Renaissance is often considered one of the pillars of Western art history—at least, so sayeth the Eurocentric lords of art history textbooks. That being said, the Italian Renaissance was, undeniably, a huge time for art. Roughly, it spanned the 14th to early 17th centuries, and produced such notable artists as Michelangelo, Raphael, Leonardo da Vinci, and Donatello. Painting, sculpture, architecture, and music all flourished. This period is too massive to group all of the art into one clear style so scholars often subcategorize the Renaissance by century.

Starting in the 14th century, Italian artists and intellectuals were getting into humanism. It drove them to think up new ways of expressing themselves and coincided with a renewed interest in antiquity. Italy was filled with art and architecture left over by the ancient Greeks and Romans, and Italians developed an interest in ancient culture, art, and mythology. Paintings and sculptures often depicted scenes from classical mythology, even blending it with Christianity in some cases. Who knew Bacchus, the Roman god of a good time could be symbolically linked to Jesus because of the whole wine thing? In conjunction with the interest in Greek and Roman antiquity, artists worked to perfect their crafts and some even developed new groundbreaking techniques that included linear perspective.

The Italian Renaissance continued to pick up speed over the centuries, later influencing other countries in Europe to embark on their own Renaissance journeys (see Northern Renaissance). There is A LOT of artistic content to digest, so consider this just a lil' appetizer. G

J

JAPONISME (n.)

In 1853, Japan reopened its ports to the West after more than 200 years of national seclusion. A tidal wave of foreign imports flooded the European shores. On the crest of that wave, the woodcut prints of Japanese ukiyo-e masters became instant favorites. Impressionist and Postimpressionist artists began to incorporate the color, stylization, iconography, flattened shapes, and use of perspective found in Japanese art into their work. While aspects of japonisme reflect an authentic influence of Japanese art on Western art, it also reflects European problematic notions of Japanese culture, such as exoticism (see Orientalism). J & C

JUXTAPOSITION (n.)

Juxtaposition is a side-by-side comparison of subjects that emphasizes their contrasting nature. While not exclusively an art history term, “juxtaposition” is frequently used when discussing art. Colors, shapes, and ideas can all be juxtaposed. Pop artists of the 1960s brought imagery of everyday, banal items into the realm of high art through their use of juxtaposition. Artist and Catholic nun, Corita Kent created brightly colored prints with famous quotes, song lyrics, and bible verses. By juxtaposing a graphic medium with morally and socially conscious messages, she produced visually simple works that are loaded with meaning. N

K

KITSCH (n.)

I’m a millennial, which means I’m broke and I love irony. That is why the majority of the artworks I have purchased in my lifetime have come from thrift stores and garage sales. My personal favorite is the triptych of painted cats in a bent metal frame that hangs above my doorway. I love it with my whole heart.

In addition to being cute and a little creepy, this work is undeniably kitschy. “Kitsch” is an uppity artworld term used to describe art that is tacky or overly sentimental. Kitsch is art that is thought of as surface level. It’s not controversial and it does not offend. The word “kitsch” is very often used derogatorily to describe something that is believed to be in popular, but poor, taste (as opposed to the refined tastes of the high-cultured elite).

For many years American artist Cassius Marcellus Coolidge’s “Dogs Playing Poker” series (1903) was a staple of the lower-middle-class American home/local dive bar scene. It depicts a circle of anthropomorphized dogs sitting at a table playing poker. It’s funny because they are dogs. And they’re playing poker. Dogs aren’t supposed to be able to play poker. This work, despite its immense popularity and instant recognizability, is rarely discussed in relation to other artworks of the time or displayed in museum or gallery settings. It is not associated with “high art” and is often intentionally divorced from it. It is quintessential kitsch.

MEME, SELF-PORTRAIT

From a theoretical standpoint, kitsch poses many interesting art historical questions regarding the purpose and value of art. Additionally, kitsch aesthetics have been widely embraced and subverted in the contemporary art world (check out the entry on camp). Plus, kitsch is a topic that is sure to come up when discussing the merits of a particular artwork at that high-profile gallery opening.

“I just adore the minimalist feline triptych over there.”

“I don’t know honey, don’t you find it a little kitsch?” C

KOUROS/KORE (n.)

A beautiful Greek hunk of man made out of marble? But wait, I’m at a museum not on a beach in Mykonos … oh, I must be admiring a kouros!

In ancient Greek, kouros means “youth” or “youthful boy,” specifically a youth who is pubescent and ready to join the ranks of the adult male community. The ancient Greeks produced kouroi (plural for kouros) abundantly during the Archaic era (600–480 BCE), and they are some of the earliest examples of ancient Greek monumental figure sculptures.

These statues were almost always standing in the nude and are likely to have been either votive or commemorative in nature. However, they do not tend to have any distinguishing features, which begs the question: Who or what is being commemorated here? One popular theory is that the kouros is an ancient Greek sculptural type that celebrates the beauty of the (masculine) youthful bod.

The kouros also has a female counterpart, the kore (pl. korai) which means “maiden” in ancient Greek (shout out to Corrie, whose name is derived from the kore!). Unlike the kouros, a kore is always clothed in thick, sometimes elaborate drapery and tends to have an extended arm. Unfortunately, these arms are mostly broken off, which leaves historians in the dark as to what they may have been holding. This only deepens the mystery as to who these figures were meant to represent. Perhaps the kouros and kore are meant to embody archetypal Greek ideals of masculinity and femininity? We really do not know, but we can glean from their slight little smiles (called the “archaic smile”) that they hold a secret that has been lost to time. J

L

LAND ART (n.)

See earth art.

LANDSCAPE (n./adj.)

We have been looking at land for all of human history, so it makes sense that we would paint it at some point. The depiction of natural scenery, such as mountains, valleys, trees, rivers, and forests in art is broadly referred to as landscape art.

There is a major tradition of landscape painting in both Western and Chinese art, and each goes back well over one thousand years. In the case of East Asian art, landscape paintings draw upon Daoist philosophy and are used as tools to aid meditation and contemplation of nature. In the Western tradition, the grand Romanticist landscape becomes the pinnacle of a tradition celebrating a sublime take on the great power of nature compared to the power of man.

The term “landscape” is also used to refer to a genre of photography. The notable American landscape photographer Ansel Adams captured breathtaking black-and-white images of the American West in the mid-20th century. His interest in documenting the grandeur of America’s untamed wilderness would go on to make him one of the most important environmental conservationists in United States’ history. So, not only did he capture images of the landscape, he helped take care of it for future generations to enjoy Thanks Ansel! J

LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE/LANDSCAPE DESIGN (n.)

There is a great deal of overlap between landscape architecture and landscape design, so pay attention.

Landscape architecture is the intersection of architecture and nature when the natural elements of an existing landscape are expanded upon. The ratios of the various elements vary depending on the circumstances. For example, some projects require more architecture than nature, and vice versa. Landscape architecture often refers to urban planning in relation to parks and civic landscapes—Golden Gate Park in San Francisco and Hyde Park in London being prime examples. Landscape architects often complete a design and pass it off to contractors for completion.

Landscape design, on the other hand, generally refers to researching and designing a horticulture composition—that is, a garden. Landscape designers assess a space and map out the design, including all plant and architectural elements.

French Impressionist Claude Monet famously created a large garden near his home in Giverny, France. It was here that he painted some of his most famous works, including his waterlilies. Monet purchased the land near his home so he could begin constructing a giant garden of exotic and ordinary plants, alike. He had man-made ponds and a Japanese walking bridge built into the garden where he let his plants grow rather than keeping them pruned and contained. By curating his garden, but also allowing the plants to grow wildly, Monet was collaborating with nature in a way (shout out, chance aesthetics).

And you can rest assured that I’m qualified to explain these concepts because Corrie and I were basically landscape architects for a summer (in case you were wondering, no, art history podcasting does not pay the bills … yet.) N

LAPIS LAZULI (n.)

Lapis lazuli is a semiprecious stone found in Afghanistan. When ground down to powder, it creates a blue pigment for paint. The use of lapis lazuli as a decorative stone, and as a pigment, dates back centuries.

When painted with, lapis lazuli creates an iridescent pigment with lasting vibrancy. Such a property was very desirable for artists back in the day, who struggled to find a permanent, vibrant blue paint. As such, the pigment became a big deal in the art world. During the Renaissance, when merchants began importing pigment made from the stone into Europe, the demand for lapis lazuli grew. Stones were mined, ground down, and transported from Afghanistan to the Netherlands and Italy in order for artists to paint that rich blue.

The color name “ultramarine” comes from the lapis lazuli pigment, as Italians called the color azzurro oltramarino —“blue from overseas.” Since European painters had no local access to lapis lazuli, the ultramarine pigment was coveted and incredibly expensive. And since the pigment was so expensive, and its color so unique at the time, artists often applied it to important figures in their compositions, such as the Virgin Mary. When looking at paintings of Mary from the Renaissance, she is often cloaked in a lovely and expensive ultramarine: only the best for Mary. G

LIGHT ART (n.)

Light art is the use of light—artificial or otherwise—as the primary medium in a work of art. This usually takes the form of a sculpture or an interaction with space.

Experimentation with light as an artistic medium can be traced back to the 18th century, but it wasn’t until the 1960s that light art was considered a legit art movement. In the early 1960s, American minimalist sculptor Dan Flavin became known for creating sculptures and installations from store-bought fluorescent lights. A few years later, in 1966, James Turrell began experimenting with light and its relationship to space.

Turrell is known for his light tunnels, light projections, and skyspaces. His light projections rely on artificial light to give a sense of weight to objects and spaces. His skyspaces, on the other hand, use natural light to alter the viewer’s perception of a space. He constructs architectural spaces that allow in natural light in a way that visibly affects the viewers experience of the space. This occurs through various openings in the structure, including an oculus (hole in the roof). It’s a whole experience that will make you rethink your relationship to time and space. Ten out of ten; would recommend. C

LIMINAL SPACE (n.)

If you were anything like me and my friends in college, then you were stoked to discover the term “liminal space,” and promptly used it to describe anything vaguely transitory. Technically, that is what a liminal space is —a place of transition, a space of waiting, and the mysterious unknown. The liminal space is the space between (shout out, Dave Matthews Band).

The beauty of the liminal space is that it can be anything if you try hard enough. Let’s start with the obvious liminal spaces: doorways, airports, stairwells—these are very literal spaces between two destinations. Then there are liminal spaces that hold more poetic imagery—empty lighthouses, abandoned barns in the countryside, vacant grocery stores at 2 a.m. These liminal spaces evoke feelings rather than act as a portal from one physical point to another. Where things get really wild is when the liminal space is more of a concept: divorce, joblessness, the place between sleep and awake (shout out, Peter Pan), or being left alone in an unfamiliar basement at the frat party your roommate dragged you to (Thanks, Karen). C

BIO ART, FILM PHOTOGRAPHY

LINEAR PERSPECTIVE (n.)

Linear perspective is a system used in drawing and painting that makes it possible to create the illusion of depth on a two-dimensional surface. In many ways, it hailed the shift between the Middle Ages and the Early Renaissance—as far as art-making goes, anyway (see Italian Renaissance).

The 15th-century Italian architect and designer Filippo Brunelleschi is often credited for the discovery of linear perspective. He observed that, with a single, fixed point of view, parallel lines appear to converge at a single point in the distance. In a famous experiment, Brunelleschi used mirrors to sketch the Florence Baptistry in perfect perspective. He was able to calculate the scale of objects mathematically within a painting, in order to make them appear realistic. This was a huge deal, guys.

Soon, other artists began to use this technique in their work, and thus we were catapulted out of the flat, two-dimensional world of the medieval era into the three-dimensional world of the Renaissance. This new world gave us paintings such as the Mona Lisa, whose subject serves us some sassy, secretive vibes with a mysterious, but believably vast landscape stretching out behind her.

Although Brunelleschi was certainly responsible for popularizing the technique in Italy, it is important to note that artists and sculptors from the ancient Mediterranean world were using spatial depth in art far before Brunelleschi’s experiments. The ancient Greeks and Romans understood how to create an image with convincing depth, and painted or sculpted works from these times show an interest in creating the illusion of three-dimensional space (just check out the Column of Trajan in Rome, or the painted villas of Pompeii for evidence of this).

Brunelleschi, in true Renaissance form, helped reinvigorate the interest in this method of art-making from antiquity. You have him to thank for adding even more mystery to the enigmatic Mona and, by extension, to the smoking Mona hanging out in text art. J

LOST WAX (n.)

See bronze casting.

M

MANDALA (n.)

The shape of the universe remains an elusive and incomprehensible concept for most of humanity, but that has not stopped us from attempting to map it. A mandala, meaning “circle” in Sanskrit, is a spiritual and ritual Hindu and Buddhist symbol representing the universe. Usually, these diagrams have a radial balance, with four gates (representing the cardinal directions of North, South, East, and West) surrounding a center point.

In common use, the term “mandala” has become a catchall term for any diagram, chart, or geometric pattern that represents the cosmos, metaphysically or symbolically, and is understood as a microcosm of the universe. These diagrams are used as an aid to meditation, something to be repeatedly contemplated to the point of saturation, such that the image of the mandala becomes fully internalized in even the most minute detail. These works are often believed to embody divine and cosmic geometries and help to serve the human drive to understand our world, using them to chart, organize, and make sense of the unpredictable and imperceptible universe. J

MANNERISM (n.)

Mannerism is a stylistic term applied to art made after the Italian Renaissance, and before the Baroque period. It’s derived from the Italian word maniera meaning “style” and Mannerist artists aimed to make their work more stylized and dramatic than the work of Renaissance artists who preceded them. The thought being: sure, it’s all well and good to make realistic and beautiful art like Raphael did, but why not make it extra? Throw in some bright-ass colors, contort and elongate limbs, create some real drama!

Italian painter Parmigianino was all about that body, elongating limbs to highlight his skill at rendering detailed flesh, muscle, and bone. His painting Vision of Saint Jerome (1526–27) shows St. Jerome kneeling in a sort of frat-bro lunge, pointing his finger up toward baby Jesus and Mary at the top of the composition. Jerome’s arm is longgg, and his pointed finger looks like two of my pointer fingers combined. It’s not that Parmigianino didn’t know what a real arm and finger looked like—rather, he wanted to exaggerate it for dramatic and stylistic effect. Similarly, when young Parmi painted Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror (c. 1524), rather than “normalize” what he saw in the mirror, he represented the distortions created by the mirror in his portrait. His oversized hand rests at the foreground of the painting, almost inviting the viewer into the scene.

Mannerists pushed the boundaries of representation and began experimenting with artificiality and absurdism in art. Their strange, serpentine figures represented a shift in ideology from “Man is the center of the universe.” to “The universe is big and mysterious and who the hell knows what’s going on?” G & N

MARBLE (n.)

See Carrara Marble.

MASTERPIECE (n.)

A masterpiece is a work of art that’s exceedingly impressive in its skill, design, and craft: a perfect specimen. When the word originated during the Middle Ages in Europe, it referred to a work of art created by a prospective member of a guild, as an audition tape of sorts. If their masterpiece passed the test, they would be dubbed a master, and both would be acquired by the guild. Masterpieces could then be shown to customers to present what a guild could do. Think of it as the dessert in the display case at a bakery—it represents what the business has to offer you, so they’re going to show you the crème de la crème.

Eventually, the aforementioned type of work would be called a reception piece, and the word masterpiece instead came simply to mean a really badass piece of art. Oftentimes a masterpiece is considered the most badass of a creator’s entire oeuvre. It can get rather academic and elitist if you let it, but the idea of a masterpiece can simply be about recognizing the achievement of a creator and appreciating the countless hours that went into mastery of their craft. It doesn’t have to be that serious.

French novellist Honoré de Balzac’s story The Unknown Masterpiece was written in 1831 and demonstrates a brilliant but tortured artist going mad during his quest to create his own masterpiece. Spoiler alert: he ends up setting himself and all of his canvases on fire in a fit of passion. This story reminds us of the intrinsic problems with aiming for perfection in artwork—or anything really. So, I guess what I’m trying to say is, create your masterpiece if you want, but don’t let it ruin your life. N

MATERIAL-BASED PRACTICE (n.)

Remember what I said about contemporary art? How we’ve gotten to a place in art where much of it has become undefinable? One way that contemporary artists distinguish between the various forms of contemporary art-making is by focusing on the art practice itself. The terms “material-based practice” and “research-based practice” help organize the vast plethora of contemporary art practices that exist today.

Material-based practice prioritizes physical materials such as glass, metals, textiles, paint, and so on. This may seem a bit obvious to you. What is art making if not making art with materials? Well, we live in a post-conceptual art world and there is now another approach called *drum roll* research-based practice, which prioritizes the research element of an artwork—that is, the ideas and information that comprise the work. Material-based practiced is centered around the physical, while research-based is all about the conceptual. Some artists spend a lot more time thinking about an artwork and researching necessary ideas than they do with actual materials, while others are much more concerned with the materiality of a work and how those materials work together.

While both concepts are important to understanding the whole of a work of art, I think approaching the idea as a binary is kinda lame. More likely than not, the art that you are looking at incorporated both methodologies in some way. C

MEDIEVAL ART (n.)

See Middle Ages.

MEDIUM (n.)

“Medium” refers to that which makes up a given artwork. This can mean the material used, such as acrylic paint, or the form it takes, such as performance. French sculptor Camille Claudel used the mediums of marble and bronze, to create eerily romantic sculptures, while Dorothea Lange preferred the newer medium of photography.

Artists like Cuban-American performance artist Ana Mendieta played with varied mediums. While she worked with some conventional art materials, such as film, photography, and painting, she also dabbled in less commonly used materials that included earth, blood, and the human body. The concept of what art can be has opened up so much in our contemporary society, that really anything can be an art medium if you try hard enough. N

MEGALITH (n.)

Big rock! C

MEME (n.)

On the surface, memes (internet memes, specifically) seem completely frivolous and mostly asinine—and don’t get me wrong, they totally are—but there is so much more going on here, people! A meme is an idea, behavior, or style that spreads from person to person within a culture and conveys a theme or meaning. A meme acts as a unit for carrying a cultural idea, symbol, or practice, that can be transmitted from one mind to another through writing, speech, gestures, rituals, or other imitable phenomena with a mimicked theme.

The word meme was coined by British evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins and is a shortening of the ancient Greek word mimeme, meaning “imitated thing.” Dawkins posited that evolution depended not on the particular chemical basis of genetics, but only on the existence of a self-replicating unit of transmission—the gene (betcha didn’t think we were gonna talk evolutionary biology in this entry, huh?). In terms of cultural evolution, Dawkins theorized that the meme exemplified another self-replicating unit with the potential to explain human behavior within the scope of cultural development (whew, I am already winded).

So, if the meme acts as a unit of cultural transmission, what do you suppose is the vehicle for this transmission? The kings of copycatting: humans! That’s right, we evolved to be damn good at copying information and behavior (monkey see, monkey do, remember?). But we aren’t perfect, so memes modifiy and change over time, creating new memes in the process.2

But wait, what about internet memes??? I’m getting there … WE LOVE THEM! Internet memes are where we get to see this phenomenon in action on a daily basis people! Even if you’ve avoided social media like the plague, you have definitely seen an internet meme. Usually these feature an image or scene from pop culture that is instantly recognizable and is accompanied by some kind of humorous text. Said images are hugely exploitable, are easy to modify, change, and send off into the vast internet social network where they rapidly spread, change, and spread some more (like a virus, hence “going viral”).

Internet memes are not only fascinating, they’re also ART. We at the AHB believe they have become the manifestations of some form of Neo-Dada. Memes are geared toward the absurd (and the more absurd, the better). As seen in times of great uncertainty, we turn toward the absurd when we can no longer make sense of the world. We are currently in such a time in human history, so next time you see a funny meme, recognize it as the art that it is, and send it to your friends, because we all need a good laugh while we watch the world burn. J

MEMENTO MORI (n.)

The Latin phrase memento mori—meaning “remember you will die”—emerged as a philosophy and grew into a prominent motif in medieval Christian art. It serves as a reminder of mortality, and artists can achieve this goal through the inclusion of a multitude of motifs, depending on cultural, generational, and contextual factors. Common memento mori symbols include skulls, hourglasses, clocks, fruit, flowers, and burning candles. Basically, anything that reminds us that time is moving, and we are not exempt from its effects.

Of all the memento mori symbols, the skull is the most universal. Pendant with Monk and Death (c. 1575–1675) is a French Baroque example of memento mori. Half monk face, half skull, this pendant is carved from ivory and represents the juxtaposition of life and death. The artist is unknown, yet the message is clear and lasting: eventually, we are all going to die.

While you could interpret the idea of memento mori as morbid, it is mortality that makes life precious. Without the possibility of death, life wouldn’t be worth living—it’s the ultimate paradox. So, remember to appreciate the life you have been given, my dudes. N

MFA (n.)

MFA stands for “mother f’ing artist”—kidding, it stands for “master of fine arts,” and it is the highest academic standing for an artist in the United States (so basically the same thing). There’s no such thing as a PhD of fine arts—although how cool would that be … “paging, Dr. Artist.”?

It’s a graduate school program for those who have already received a BFA (Bachelor of Fine Arts), usually lasting between two and three years, depending on the university you go to. Fun fact: the first school to admit a student into an MFA program was the University of Iowa (the coasts are seething right now). An MFA is not to be confused with an MA, which stands for “Master of Arts” and is applied to disciplines under the umbrella of Bachelor of Art degrees, such as art history.

Acquiring an MFA is required to teach art at the college level, but it’s certainly not necessary to be an artist. With that in mind, if graduate school isn’t on the cards for you right now, don’t let that stop you from making your MF'ing art. N

SERPENTINE, SUPREMATISM, THE WHITE CUBE

MIDCENTURY MODERN (n.)

Midcentury modern can refer to a kind of sleek, 1950s-era style of furniture, but it can also be used as a blanket term, covering various mediums and spanning multiple decades. I usually visualize midcentury modern design by picturing scenes from the television series “Mad Men”: bold colors, sleek lines, geometric forms, cigarettes, and sexism! Those last two don’t actually have anything to do with midcentury modern, but you get the vibe.

Midcentury modern began around the early 1940s, as industrial expansion and the influence of European movements such as the Bauhaus impacted design in America. During this time, Americans began to favor function over decoration and preferred more minimal designs. America’s post World War II economy was big-time booming, which led to mass construction of homes. And people had to fill up those homes with furniture and art! With this growth and prosperity came the idea that design should be beautiful but, perhaps more importantly, efficient and accessible. Midcentury modern remains a lasting style, in large part because of the emphasis on affordable, contemporary design. It’s definitely in right now, so maybe get yourself a sleek midcentury modern coffee table. You can put this book on it. G

MIDDLE AGES (n.)

The medieval era, often described as the “Dark Ages,” elicits images of plague, stagnated technology, population decline, war, and overall human suffering. But just how “dark” were the Dark Ages? While we can say this certainly wasn’t the very silly world conjured up in Monty Python and the Holy Grail, it also was not complete misery, either. In fact, this period was marked by technological and agricultural innovations, flourishing trade routes, and the founding of universities (the University of Oxford being a notable example). Therefore, in an effort to move away from the whole light-versus-dark model, we now refer to this era of European history as the Middle Ages.

Art of the Middle Ages—often called medieval in style—was produced in many mediums ranging from sculpture, painting, illuminated manuscripts, stained glass, metalwork, and mosaics. This art grew out of the artistic heritage of the Roman Empire and the iconographic traditions of the early Christian Church, as well as the artistic culture of Northern Germanic and Eastern European tribes (we no longer refer to these early non-Christian groups as “barbarian”).

Detailed geometric designs, interlaced animal and vegetal decoration, stylized figures, and largely two-dimensional compositions are all common in the art of this period. There are few human figures, and the ones that do appear are often so highly stylized that they appear crude.

However, the artists of the medieval era were well aware of human proportions and illusionistic painting techniques. For these artists, the world of the living was just less important than the world of spiritual and ethereal forces. Hence, the lack of naturalistic, human, and animal bodies was less about skill and more about a preoccupation with otherworldliness. J

MINIATURE (n./adj.)

As a child who grew up playing with Polly Pockets, Hit Clips, and Hot Wheels (we 90s kids survived so many choking hazards), I fully understand the appeal of a good miniature. Making an object that’s otherwise ordinary, mini, has become a staple in our current culture, and the term “miniature” has come to encompass anything made smaller than normal. Just think about it: mini soda cans, mini muffins, sliders (clearly I’m hungry) … we’re kind of obsessed with making things mini.

In art history terms, “miniature” usually refers to one of two separate painting styles. The first began in 13th-century Persia and the second originated in 16th-century Europe. Both traditions stemmed from illuminated manuscripts. The paintings ranged roughly between 1 and 10 inches (3 and 25 cm) tall and were valued for their portability. Persian artists learned to paint at miniature painting schools, where each school taught its own, unique style of painting (and by this I do not mean a painting school for ants, but a school that taught the miniature painting tradition). In Western traditions, these paintings were generally portraits that would represent allegiances. These miniatures could be carried in a special case, or even worn in a pendant around the neck. So, by this logic, I was saying more than I intended by wearing that Polly Pocket pendant as a child. N

MINIMALISM (n.)

1960s art movement rejecting excess of Ab-Ex. Denial of expression. Sleek. Sparse. Lots of white. J

MIXED MEDIA (n./adj.)

When a piece of art is made using multiple mediums, it’s called a mixed-media work. It’s as simple and expansive as that. What’s more, “multiple” can mean two or 2,000. This all began around 1912, when collages were having a moment in Cubist circles.

Collage, which began as the paper-on-paper technique, naturally evolved to incorporate other materials. When there became too many and/or unknown materials being used in artwork, things got confusing, so the work was simply labeled “mixed media”.

Mixed media generally refers to three-dimensional pieces, but also includes many two-dimensional works. It’s a pretty inclusive term. Not to confuse you, but the phrase isn’t only used by necessity, but sometimes by choice as well. Artists can use the term “mixed media” if they want to keep their actual materials a secret (so mysterious). Or an artist/archivist could simply be feeling lazy and write “mixed media” to avoid listing a bunch of materials. It truly just depends. N

MODERNISM (n.)

Modernity! What a giant, crazy, beautiful, industrial mess of a thing, all in the name of progress.

It can be pretty tough to grasp the use of the word “modern” in reference to art. This is because, in everyday English, the word means “relating to the present or recent times.” However, “modernist” is the label given to a lot of art created c. 1860 to 1970 (very rough timeline here). Right off the bat, we’re in a confusing situation, just as we were with contemporary art. “Modern” is supposed to mean “the now,” but “modern art” is used to describe art from over a century ago, which is most certainly “the then.”

To better understand the use of this terminology, we gotta take a look at modernity. The word “modernity” describes the modern era and the dominant attitudes and cultural norms associated with it. The early modern period is considered to have begun in the 17th century, with the gradual rise of Enlightenment thinking. Some believe that modernity ended during World War II, when it gave way to postmodernity. Scientific explanation, rationalization, industrialization, urbanization, and just a general notion that humanity is always progressing is what modernity is all about.

Modern art and the philosophy surrounding it (modernism) intersects with this historical framework, but it is also its own thing. The term “modernism” encompasses a variety of art movements, including Impressionism, Cubism, Art Nouveau, Fauvism, and so. much. more. One thing all these movements have in common is their rejection of tradition. They all took long-established ideas about art and threw them in the trash. Modern artists experimented with new materials and meanings, challenging the conventional purposes of art.

So, to sum things up, modernity is a historical time frame, beginning with the Renaissance (aka the early modern era) and coming to an end with World War II. It is characterized by rational thinking, the rise of industrial technology, and progress with a capital “P.” Modernism and modern art, on the other hand, relate to art created from 1860 to 1970 that embraced the world of modernity and challenged traditional modes of art-making. They also tend to be caught up on the idea of progress.

That’s my time. Good luck everyone. C

MONUMENT (n.)

A monument is an object erected in a public space to commemorate an event or particular person. Monuments take on various forms—from sculptures to architectural sites—and have an extensive history. They provide a lot of insight into the historical period during which they were commissioned and constructed.

Monuments. Are. Everywhere. Egyptian pharaohs erected obelisks as big ole monuments to their times as rulers. Monuments all over the world memorialize wars and those who have died fighting in them. Monuments can often be politically charged, and with the passing of time as well as societal values, monuments can become quite contentious. Former president of Iraq, Saddam Hussein erected a giant monument of his likeness, but a year later the United States Marine Corps secured a chain around the statue, bringing it down with a tank. Once the monument toppled, Iraqis decapitated it and dragged the head through the streets. Suffice it to say, people felt some type of way about it. Monuments are constructed with a certain ideal or message, but there are no guarantees they will remain accepted over time.

I meant it when I said monuments are everywhere, yet we often overlook them because they are so ubiquitous. Like all art, monuments carry messages, whether you agree with them or not. Times change, and not all monuments hold up …. G

MOSAIC (n.)

A mosaic is an artwork made up of small pieces of colored glass, tile, stone, or other materials (fun fact: these are called tesserae). Often, these works are decorative and are used primarily as interior decoration in homes and churches/temples/mosques. Mosaics have a long history, with some of the earliest examples dating back to the 3rd millennium BCE in Mesopotamia. Mosaics had become widespread by the classical times (ancient Greece and Rome) and continued to flourish well into the 6th century CE with the Byzantine Empire.

Some of my favorite examples come from the Byzantine Basilica di San Vitale in Ravenna, Italy. The interior of the basilica is covered with dazzling mosaics depicting many different biblical stories, as well as showcasing the devoutness of the Orthodox Roman Emperor Justinian I and his wife, the Empress Theodora, who were said to be great patrons of the arts. The splendor of these mosaics has not been lost even though they are over a thousand years old, speaking to the enduring quality of the mosaic format. J

MOSQUE (n.)

Mosques are religious spaces for Muslim group worship. The name derives from the Arabic word masjid, meaning “a place for bowing down.” Fitting, considering prayer has a central role in the Islamic faith and Muslims are expected to pray toward Mecca five times a day.

The religion of Islam began with the Prophet Muhammad in the 7th century, and quickly spread in the centuries following. All mosques are modeled after the prophet’s home in Medina, where the first ritual group prayers took place. Before this, prayer was a deeply personal and private act. Soon after, however, mosques were erected across the fertile crescent including modern-day Iraq, Syria, and Egypt. The oldest, the Great Mosque of Damascus, dates from 706 to 715 CE.

DATAMOSH, TOMB

While they don’t all look exactly the same, there are certain features that come standard in mosques. One such feature is the large, square, hypostyle prayer hall featuring rows of columns and pointed arches, and in which the congregation gathers for prayer. Said congregation is drawn to prayer via a minaret (tower), where the muezzin (crier) calls the faithful to worship. Inside the prayer hall, the quibla wall signifies the direction of Mecca, and the mihrab–a niche or chamber–is often (but not always) built into the quibla wall. This symbolizes where the Prophet Muhammad once stood.

As with cathedrals, temples, and synagogues, these spaces are considered sacred and visitors must abide by a certain set of rules. Figural representation, for example, is a big no-no. Instead, Muslims have developed their own Islamic decorative style that beautifies a space without disrespecting the divine. N

MOTIF (n.)

In art, a motif is an element of an image. Often, it is repeated in a pattern or design many times. Examples of motifs can be seen in ornamental or decorative art, and commonly include plant, animal, or geometric elements. One of my favorite textile motifs is the Persian buta or boteh. You’ve seen it before: it’s that almond or pine-cone-shaped motif with a sharp-curved upper end that’s used in the paisley textile patterns that decorate everything from dresses to bandanas to curtains. J

MULTIMEDIA (n./adj.)

The term “multimedia” is used to describe artworks that are made up of more than one kind of medium. Multimedia art can use combinations of text, audio, images, animations, video, painting, sculpture, interactive content, and more. You might be thinking, “How is this different than mixed media?” I am glad you asked, dear reader. Mixed-media art incorporates various visual art mediums, while multimedia art can include any form of visual art, plus other artforms such as dance, literature, performance, music, and sound, as well as other nonvisual elements.

Because multimedia art combines so many different aspects of human experience, it is capable of causing full-on sensory overload. The Argentine multimedia artist Andres Paredes created a huge participative, immersive installation involving all the senses for DIVERSEArtLA at the 2019 LA Art Show. The work, titled Trashumant, can only be described as an environment. Visitors walk into this installation and are transported to a rain-forest landscape, with cut paper resembling foliage in a forest. Four different dioramas invite viewers to peek inside, where they’ll see butterflies, luminescent crystals, clay skulls, and … smell different scents? That’s right. This work had scents. Paredes, who is interested in remembrance and evoking memories of his past in his work, incorporated the sense of smell in this multisensory work, as scent is thought to have a stronger link to memory and emotion than any of the other senses. Now that’s what I call some damn good multimedia art. J

MURAL (n.)

A mural is any piece of art painted or applied directly on a wall, ceiling, or other permanent surface. Murals are distinguished from traditional painting in the sense that the space onto which the work is painted is harmoniously incorporated into the picture. With this basic definition in mind, we can date mural art as far back as Upper Paleolithic times, and the cave art in Chauvet Cave in southern France (painted c. 32,000 BCE). The murals on the ceiling and walls of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican, painted by Michelangelo, are magnificent examples from the Italian Renaissance. In the 20th century—around the end of the Mexican Revolution—Mexico’s newly appointed secretary of education, José Vasconcelos, commissioned public art projects on a massive scale to promote the ideals of the Mexican Revolution to the largely illiterate masses. Mexico’s most talented painters—such as Diego Rivera and José Clemente Orozco—were recruited to paint massive murals on the walls of government buildings and palaces, leftovers from the long period of colonial Spanish rule. They painted grand compositions rich with the themes of mestizo (or mixed) national identity, technological advancement, and overall hope for a bright Mexican future. J

MUSEUM (n.)

A museum is an institution in which items deemed historically and culturally important are stored and exhibited for public viewing. These institutions can be specific—say, contemporary art museums and natural science museums—or they can exhibit multiple disciplines within one building. The name comes from the Greek word mouseion for “seat of the muses,” which is fun. The muses, if you’re not familiar, come from Greek mythology and were beautiful ladies who represented different branches of knowledge, including art, literature, music, and science. Their purpose was to inspire men. I don’t think I need to make any kind of cynical comment here, it’s implied.

Museums educate and inform us through the various collections and exhibitions they host. There are many different kinds of museums, just waiting for you to discover them: the Sex Machines Museum in Prague and the Idaho Potato Museum in the US, to name a couple. G

MUSEUM FATIGUE (n.)

You begin your day with an anticipatory glow over your upcoming museum trip. You’re titillated with excitement over the possibilities; eager to see that new, temporary exhibition. You patiently read through all the wall text, looking at each artwork, each artifact under glass. But you’ve been wandering [insert museum name here] for nearly two hours. Skimming has replaced reading; glancing has replaced looking. You’re tired, your feet hurt, and your head is spinning.

This is museum fatigue and it is real—that specific exhaustion that happens when you’ve spent a solid chunk of time touring museums and it happens to the best of us. N

MYSTICISM (n.)

Mysticism is a big mysterious spiritual topic. Loosely defined, mysticism is about connecting to and accessing some spiritual higher power. This can be done in a variety of ways, including meditating and holding séances. Since art is often an exercise in expressing personal feelings and experiences, it may not surprise you that mysticism often comes into play in art.

When we’re talking mysticism and art, I can’t not talk about Hilma af Klint. Hilma was an artist born in Sweden in 1862. People in the late 19th and early 20th centuries were pretty into mysticism—spirits and cool, spooky stuff basically (also known as spiritualism). Along with four other women, Hilma started conducting séances. During these séances she made contact with a spiritual entity from another dimension she called Amaliel. According to Hilma, she received a commission from Amaliel to paint “the astral plane” and “the immortal aspects of man.” Whooaaa. I don’t even know what all that means, but Hilma clearly got it. Per Amaliel’s request, Hilma went on to paint numerous abstract compositions that predate major abstract and Surrealist painters. Because of her unique approach to painting, Hilma is often labeled a mystic painter. Along with séances, she practiced automatic writing and drawing (where you write or draw without consciously structuring the letters or planning out what you’re drawing).

Mysticism and art clearly have a fascinating creative exchange. Interest in mysticism took a dip in the 20th century and there were fewer séance parties, which was unfortunate. However, the 21st century has seen a cultural rise of interest in the occult and mysticism, which is a big part of why a show featuring Hilma’s work at the Guggenheim Museum in 2019 broke records for the most visited exhibition in the museum’s history. G

2 There are many critiques about meme theory, from challenging the notion that academic study can examine memes empirically, to the idea that meme theory poses a threat to the serious study of cultural evolution, but we don’t have time for all of that.

N

NARMER PALETTE (n.)

If you have ever taken an introductory art history class, chances are you’ll have seen the Narmer Palette (also known as the Palette of King Narmer). Dating from the predynastic period of ancient Egypt (c. 3000 BCE) it measures a little over 2 feet (60 centimeters) in height and is made of grayish-green stone. Both sides are decorated with detailed low-relief. On each side, a king, identified as Narmer, is depicted in a series of ambiguous scenes that are difficult to interpret and have therefore been the subject of much speculation since the palette’s discovery in 1898.

But why have we all had to look at this stone slab in our Art History 101 courses? What makes it so important? As you’ll soon learn, old Narmer’s Palette packs a punch as far as being one of the most useful objects for teaching basic art historical concepts.

First, it was one of very few such palettes found in a controlled excavation. By 1898, archaeology was an established field, but they were still working out the kinks to become more scientific and less Indiana Jones. So, this was a huge find for the discipline as a whole. Second, a number of formal and iconographic characteristics on the Narmer Palette went on to become the standard in Egyptian two-dimensional art for the following three millennia. These include the way the figures are represented, the scenes being organized in regular horizontal zones known as registers, and the use of hierarchical scale to indicate the relative importance of the individuals. Besides being hugely important for our understanding of ancient Egyptian art, the use of hierarchical scale and registers helps us make sense of a lot of other ancient works from around the world that used the same iconographic conventions.

On the palette we see Narmer in various scenes of battle. On one side, he is shown wearing the crown of Upper Egypt, and on the other he is wearing the crown of Lower Egypt. Because of this, the leading interpretation of the palette is that it depicts the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the rule of Narmer. This explanation works out with the timing of the unification of the region, so we generally go with it.

As far as the palette itself is concerned, the object was ceremonial in nature and was probably used to grind up pigments for cosmetics. So, we have a multipurpose object, full of didactic (instructional) imagery that lends itself to trying out your visual analysis know-how. This makes for a great teaching tool and is why I will probably be yapping about this palette in my classes until the eventual heat death of the universe. J

NARRATIVE SCENE (n.)

A narrative scene tells a story. This can be depicted as anything from one single moment in an ongoing story to a whole sequence of events that unfolds over time. Humans have used images to tell stories since forever, and there’s some pretty solid evidence to suggest that the earliest art was in fact narrative.

Before the development of writing, narrative art didn’t have a whole lot of organization and images were often displayed in a simultaneous narrative style. This means figures and objects weren’t organized in any particular order, like the paintings seen in the inside of caves from the Paleolithic era (over 30,000 years ago!).

With the advent of literacy around the world, narrative scenes became a bit more ordered and featured many different visual aids to help “read” an image. Characters were sometimes repeated multiple times within a single frame to indicate the passage of time and changes to the story (see continuous narrative).

Today, techniques include the use of multiple frames to break apart a story, in order to depict a particular scene or moment in each frame. This is most common in comics and graphic novels. Characters might even be repeated multiple times in a single scene to convey that multiple actions are taking place at once (which can make following the sequence of events kind of tricky).

Because a lot of the work we see throughout art history would have been displayed to largely illiterate groups of people, narrative scenes were a super important tool for relaying important stories to communities. J

NEEDLEWORK (n.)

Needlework is pretty much any work of art that requires a needle to produce it. No, I’m not including the healing art of acupuncture, although an argument could be made for it. The term “needlework” is reserved for textile artforms such as embroidery, tapestry, needlepoint, crochet, quilting, knitting, and stitching. C

NEGATIVE SPACE (n.)

When there’s empty or blank space in the composition of an artwork, we call this negative space. While technically nothingness, negative space is far from useless. More often than not, including negative space in a composition is an intentional choice and serves a purpose by creating a sense of depth with atmosphere or by drawing attention somewhere else in the composition.

For example, American artist Kara Walker masterfully—and pretty much always—uses negative space in her art. Through films, books, prints, and more, Kara creates silhouettes that bring to mind shadow puppets in order to create work that navigates through some really heavy themes such as gender, race identity, and trauma. She’s able to use negative space as a medium in and of itself and sometimes, negative space and subjects seamlessly interchange in her work. Negative space becomes subject, and vice versa. N

NEO-IMPRESSIONISM (n.)

Neo-Impressionism—not to be confused with Postimpressionism—was established by the 1890s, as a style of painting that offered an alternative to loose Impressionist brushstrokes. While Postimpressionism is often seen as a continuation of Impressionism, Neo-Impressionism was an entirely new way of painting. These artists preferred to paint in the Pointillist or divisionist styles. Once apparently dubbed a “scientific Impressionism,” Neo-Impressionism involved more calculated and precise strokes (sounds super fun, right?). This involved painting “bricks” of pure color that would all come together in the eye to shape the image. Shout out, visual perception! Basically, it’s an optical illusion where everything blends from a distance and creates a cohesive image (now that actually does sound fun). N

NEUROAESTHETICS (n.)

First, let’s break down the word “neuroaesthetics.” “Neuro” means relating to the brain or nervous system. “Aesthetics” means flip back to shown here, this is an art dictionary, after all.

Neuroaesthetics is a relatively new field of experimental science that studies aesthetic perceptions. Those studying neuroaesthetics are trying to understand the brain science behind beauty. How and why does art affect our perceptions? Why do certain works of art illicit intense feelies? Why are some works of art considered “universally” beautiful? For example, why is the Mona Lisa such a big effing deal? Is there something about the way in which the image interacts with the human brain that makes it so? To attempt to answer these questions, the study of neuroaesthetics utilizes a number of scientific technologies, such as brain-scanning and eye-tracking technology. The study of neuroaesthetics is inherently interdisciplinary, attracting neuroscientists, art historians, artists, philosophers, and psychologists alike. Such varied perspectives are necessary when approaching some of the big-time questions about humanity that neuroaesthetics explores, such as the evolutionary purpose of beauty. I mean, woah. C

EROTIC ART, ROMANTICISM, VOYEURISM

NEW OBJECTIVITY (n.)

New Objectivity, or Neue Sachlichkeit, was a German art movement founded in the aftermath of World War I. It emerged as a challenge to German Expressionism, and as the name suggests, New Objectivity championed a return to unsentimental reality and a focus on the objective world.

It was characterized by a realistic style combined with a cynical, socially critical philosophy. This was in stark contrast to the abstract, romantic, and idealistic tendencies of German Expressionism. The movement’s leaders, Max Beckmann, Otto Dix, and George Grosz aggressively attacked and satirized the evils of society and those in power, and demonstrated in the harshest terms the devastating effects of World War I.

The New Objectivity artists focused on visual sobriety—meaning nothing in the artwork is “extra” or focused on emotional elements. The artists paid special attention to the outlines of objects. Images were mostly static and banal, lacking any of the dynamic energy seen in their Expressionist counterparts. Often the subject of the work was isolated from any contextual relationship, thereby calling its very identity into question.

The German artist Kathe Kollwitz exemplifies the tenets of New Objectivity. The loss of her son during World War I led to a lifelong exploration of the subject of mourning. Her works, mostly black-and-white prints, depict images of bereaved mothers, ailing, fatherless children, anguished parents, and general suffering and death. In a woodcut titled The Widow II (Die Witwe II), from her 1921–22 print cycle “War,” Kollwitz depicts the body of a distressed mother lying flat on the ground. The mother holds her limp child, and both appear to be dead. A solid black background surrounds the woman, completely devoid of human contact. Kollwitz captures the horrors of death, war, and isolation in this simple yet devastating work, and epitomizes the aesthetic pursuits of the New Objectivity artists. J

NORTHERN RENAISSANCE (n.)

The Italians were not the only ones who had a Renaissance. Running simultaneously with the Italian Renaissance, the Northern Renaissance lasted from about the 15th through 17th centuries. Italy’s fervor for ancient Greek and Roman art and culture became very popular, impacting artists and artistic tastes in European countries north of Italy, such as the Netherlands, Germany, Belgium, France, and England. Likewise, the Northern Renaissance produced artists who were driving forward new artistic tastes and techniques.

Many Northern Renaissance artists took an interest in painting more illusionistically and subject matter was more focused on parables and scenes from daily life. Take one of the period’s grandfathers, Jan van Eyck, for example, who painted in what has become known as the Early Netherlandish style. Look at any of his paintings closely and you’ll be amazed at the level of detail in items such as fabric and jewelry. Van Eyck took painstaking efforts to make his paintings look as realistic and detailed as possible, and for that we raise a glass to you, Jan.

Dutch/Netherlandish painter Hieronymus Bosch made wonderfully weird paintings, such as The Garden of Earthly Delights (1495–1505). This triptych depicts the Garden of Eden and Last Judgment and it is so wild and fun—seriously, zoom in on an image of this painting, there’s a birdman eating a lil' naked dude who has birds flying out of his butt and that’s only one of many figures in the work.

The Northern Renaissance also saw advancements in printmaking techniques, and was overall a hot time for print production. Our guy Albrecht Dürer was one of the most prolific printmakers during the Northern Renaissance and Italian Renaissance. That man got around. The Northern Renaissance often doesn’t get as much attention as the Italian Renaissance, but it was definitely a huge period of artistic production and innovation. G

O

OBELISK (n.)

The word “obelisk” derives from the Greek obeliskos, meaning “little spit” or “skewer” and refers to its long shape that tapers to a point at the top. Obelisks originated in ancient Egypt as monuments of power commissioned by pharaohs. A pharaoh ordered the construction of an obelisk, which was carved from one piece of stone (usually granite) and decorated with tales of that pharaoh’s reign.

Obelisks in Egypt were huge and completely solid so they were crazy heavy. But size and weight never held the ancient Egyptians back. They frequently moved and erected obelisks in front of important structures, such as temples and tombs. An obelisk physically marked a place of power and a pharaoh’s right to rule through its sheer size. The ancient Egyptians believed their pharaohs to be divine rulers on Earth and obelisks acted as a sort of bridgeway between heaven and Earth: no average person could consider commissioning or erecting an obelisk.

After the fall of the Egyptian Empire, Roman Emperor Augustus returned from Egypt to Rome with various treasures; one such treasure was an obelisk. These monuments have since spread throughout the world—those from ancient Egypt, as well as those created since the fall of babe Cleopatra. Now I will say something here that I did not say in my thesis: obelisks are very phallic. Meaning an obelisk looks like a penis. It’s no secret that buildings and monuments relating to power often look phallic, and if you haven’t noticed that before, now you will—you’re welcome. G

OBJECT AGENCY (n.)

Let’s start by defining the term “agency.” Agency is typically used in reference to a human person and their ability to act on their own behalf. This can also be thought of as one’s personal power and acts of exerting it.

In the world of art, object agency is the idea that an object has its own power. This concept is kind of heady and, therefore, widely debated. Some think about object agency as separate from cultural context or the personal agency of the object’s creator. Others believe that an object’s agency comes entirely from the object’s creator. If you’re on an archaeological dig and you stumble upon a small stone figurine, does that lil' guy have agency? And if so, is it because of the cultural and historical meaning we place on it? Or did it have agency all by itself? Does our little stone friend have agency because of the creator’s intentions? Or does it have agency because of its effect on the viewer?

Just another example of the fun, unanswerable questions art historians think about all day. C

OCULUS (n.)

The word “oculus,” (Latin for “eye”), likely conjures images of people wearing VR headsets, interacting in a virtual world created by a multi-billion-dollar tech company in Silicon Valley, California. However, we at The Art History Babes studied, well, art history, so we are referring to the term that describes a round or eye-like opening or design, such as a circular window or opening at the apex of a dome.

The oculus was first used in antiquity by the ancient Romans, one of the most famous examples being that of the dome of the Pantheon in Rome, finished in 125 CE. This oculus—an impressive 27 feet (8 meters) in diameter—provides the only source of natural light to the interior of the Pantheon. The oculus also helps lighten the load of a dome, which is weakest and most vulnerable to collapse at its highest point.

The opening at the top of the dome blurs the boundary between outside and inside, and allows for the elements, such as rain, to come through as well. The interior is illuminated by the single beam of light that comes through the roof of the dome, which creates an otherworldly sensation fitting for a temple dedicated to all the gods of Rome. How epic is that? Because of the oculus’s functionality in creating such impactful effects, it featured again and again in later revivals of classical architecture. J

OEUVRE (n.)

“Oeuvre” is a mildly pretentious way to say an artist’s entire body of artwork. It means “work” in French and can be applied to any artistic discipline. N

GEOMETRIC ABSTRACTION, MANDALA, PUTTI

OIL PAINT (n.)

It seems like everything you see in a museum is “oil on canvas” or “oil on wood panel,” but have you ever wondered what that even means? Well, if you have, today is your lucky day. Oil paint is a type of slow-drying paint that consists of particles of pigment suspended in a drying oil. Traditionally linseed oil is used, although other oils, such as poppyseed, walnut, and safflower oil can also be used.

The use of oil paint dates back to the 5th century CE in works from the Middle East, but it wasn’t until the 15th century that it became the principal medium for creating artworks. Giorgio Vasari credited the Northern Renaissance painters, and Jan van Eyck in particular, with the “invention” of painting with oil mediums. Even though we know this isn’t necessarily true, it is accurate that the Northern Renaissance painters championed the use of oil paint, and it became the preferred medium among painters for centuries to follow.

Oil paint is notable for its ability to hold pigment, resulting in vibrant and lasting colors that can be mixed easily with one another to create even more colors. Oil paint gives paintings a luminescent quality because of the nature of the oil itself. When the paint dries, the pigments pop and appear fresh and wet, even though they are not. Because of its popularity during the Renaissance, considered the pinnacle of Western art, oil paint has held a special place in the world of fine-art making. J

OLD MASTER (n.)

“Old Master” is a funny term when you think about it. I’ve been indoctrinated in the art history cult for so long it’s never really stood out to me as strange, but now that I’m writing this, it hits me: “old” and “master” is an odd combination of words. The Old Masters are “old” because they’re artists ranging roughly from the Renaissance (see Italian Renaissance and Northern Renaissance) through the 18th century (Michelangelo, Rembrandt, and Jacques-Louis David are all considered Old Masters). They’re called “masters” because art historians have hailed them as the most notable and talented European artists of all.

The term is very Eurocentric and favors male artists from art history. Compared to men, women artists have not been labeled or thought of as “masters,” which is dumb. The Art History Babes all have master’s degrees and you bet we refer to ourselves as “masters” on the reg. Nonetheless, you probably won’t be shocked to hear the goofy term “Old Masters” is still widely used in the art world today, because art history just loves its old white-guy artists. G

OPENING (n.)

An “opening” is gallery lingo for an opening reception for an exhibition—a special occasion on which people come to view the work for the first time. Openings often have organized talks by the artist(s) and/or the show’s curator, to provide context for the exhibition. Attendees receive invitations and range from friends of the artist(s), to collectors, to people who like to graze free cheese and crackers. G

ORGANIC FORMS (n.)

Don’t fret—you’re not about to get lectured on what type of produce you should buy (but since we’re already on the subject—shop sustainably and buy local when possible). In art, shapes found in nature are labeled “organic forms,” and they’re often discussed in contrast to geometric forms. All forms can be categorized as either organic (natural) or geometric (human-made). Basically, it’s any shape that occurs naturally, such as water droplets, rocks, or apples (organic or not). N

ORIENTALISM (n.)

Orientalism comes from the word Orient, which broadly refers to the Eastern part of the world. Orientalism as an artistic style became popular in the 19th century when Western artists began to paint Eastern subjects and scenes. There was some interest in Asian and Middle Eastern art, but Orientalist artists largely painted exoticized and fetishized subjects in works that depicted the East as “other” to, or oppositional to the West. Orientalism was particularly popular in 19th-century France, as evidenced in paintings of naked women in harem settings that include Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres’ Grand Odalisque (1814) and Jean-Léon Gérôme’s The Slave Market (1866). Many Orientalist paintings were undeniably sexual and made by European men to be viewed by other European men.

Orientalism was most popular in countries that colonized various regions in the Middle East and Asia. Depicting sexualized and exoticized scenes visually marked the Orient as “other” from the Western countries that found them fascinating and alluring, but ultimately viewed them as less than, and distinctly separate from, their own cultures. Orientalism was a tool Western countries used to depict and define those they colonized in the name of power. The concept of the Orient itself is a Western construct, a term to group large expanses of land and create cultural borders. Orientalist artists did not give their subjects agency, but created painted worlds and people that projected Western ideals and beliefs, instead of representing real places and people.

It took a long time for Western culture to accept criticism of Orientalism. Literature professor Edward Said wrote the book Orientalism in 1978, breaking down all the ways in which Orientalism was problematic. I’m going to go against the rule my professors ingrained in me and end this entry with a quote (deal with it). Edward Said wrote, “One ought never to assume that the structure of Orientalism is nothing more than a structure of lies or myths which were the truth about them to be told, would simply blow away.”3 G

ORIENTATION (n.)

In the scope of art and art history, orientation refers to the way a work is meant to be viewed. There are generally two ways to orient a work: portrait and landscape. Portrait orientation is when a work is taller (vertical) than it is wide (horizontal). This is based on how we usually perceive people: up and down. In landscape orientation, we look at the image side to side (horizontally) and conceive of landscapes as being vast and wide. That being said, the content of a painting doesn’t dictate the orientation. Portraits can have landscape orientation; landscapes can be portrait. The difference is the idea that one is better suited than the other for composition. So, when you are making some art, don’t feel confined to these rules—just know that typically one is more appropriate than the other, but whichever you choose isn’t wrong. Go nuts. J

ORPHISM (n.)

Orphism was an early 1900s art movement spearheaded by art power couple, Sonia and Robert Delaunay. (Well, Orphism is the name that art critic Guillaume Apollinaire gave the movement. Robert himself preferred Simultanism or “simultaneous contrast.”) Orphism was inspired by modern art styles that included Symbolism, Cubism, and Fauvism. The couple saw what the Cubists were doing and they were, like, “Hey! that fragmentation of geometric shapes, that’s good stuff.” But then they looked at the Fauvists and they were, like, “Oh but these colors! They make me feel things.” So they mixed the two and out popped Orphism.

Orphism sought to infuse Cubist techniques with a little feeling. Instead of giving precedence to recognizable objects, Orphists explored states of being using form and color. They engaged with scientific color theory and played with what could happen when light and color are not bound to an object. For example, Sonia’s Electric Prisms (1913) is an abstract composition inspired by the newly installed street lights on a boulevard in Paris. The glow of the lights is segmented into loosely geometric shapes (shout out, Cubism), but the range of colors and their relationships to one another is certainly the focus of the painting. It's like when you’re lying on the floor and you stare directly into the ceiling lamp for too long and patches of color start to emerge from the light’s source.

No? Just me? Cool. Cool cool cool. C

3 Said, Edward W. Orientalism. Brantford, Ont.: W. Ross MacDonald School, Resource Services Library, 2006.

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PALETTE (n.)

An artist’s palette is nearly inextricable from our image of the artist. Whether you first saw one in the hand of Artemisia Gentileschi, Diego Velázquez, or Bob Ross, you know that trusty slab made for mixing paint. As I write, I’m looking across the room at my own paint-covered palette sitting atop my bookshelf. Mine is the old cliché that’s shaped like a big, wooden lily pad with a thumb hole, but nowadays palettes come in all shapes and sizes. In high school, I—and every other art student—used round, plastic palettes with individual craters around the edge to mix paint in. They even make special palettes now, to keep your paint wet between painting sessions—now that’s what I call technological advancement. N

PALETTE KNIFE (n.)

Palette knives and palettes go together like Bob Ross and Peapod the squirrel. Size and shape vary, but all of them have a flexible metal blade with a handle. Some have a blunt tip for mixing paint, while others have a sharp tip, for applying paint to canvas. Artists often have a whole slew of palette knives in different shapes and sizes, and they achieve some pretty amazing effects using them—just take it from our boy Bob: “All you need to paint is a few tools, a little instruction, and a vision in your mind.” N

PARADIGM (n.)

A paradigm is an established and accepted set of ideas. It is commonly used in the context of a paradigm shift—a big schism or transformational shift in the way of doing things. For example, the Protestant Reformation marked a paradigm shift in established Christianity.

Art is largely about pushing boundaries, and so paradigm shifts are fairly constant. Even though this has been happening since the beginning of creativity, artists who challenge paradigms still experience a great deal of pushback from self-appointed guardians of culture and taste.

The advent of abstraction was a mega-mondo-monster paradigm shift in art history. In the mid-1800s various artists gradually began exploring abstraction in their works—simplifying forms and withdrawing from the established norm of producing visual representations of objective reality. This paradigm shift ruffled feathers to the point where one dispute over aesthetic taste even ended up in court.

In 1875, James Abbott McNeill Whistler painted Nocturne in Black and Gold, The Falling Rocket. The painting represents a burst of fireworks over the Thames River in London. An atmospheric and abstracted rendering of the event, it is painted in shades of dark blue and golden yellow, with falling speckles of gold to represent the fireworks. Prominent art critic John Ruskin did not care for it. Not one bit. Ruskin wrote a scathing review of the work and Whistler countered by suing Ruskin for libel. The argument was whether or not Nocturne in Black and Gold was a legitimate or worthy work of art. A full-blown court case ensued, with plenty of press coverage and a courtroom full of spectators. Seems like a pretty frivolous thing to bother with today but, to be fair, what better place to debate and decide on an established set of rules than a court of law? C

PARTICIPATORY ART (n.)

Participatory art engages the viewer in such a way that they become part of the art-making process. Artists have gotten really creative over the years, devising different ways to break down the dichotomy of viewer and viewed. Fluxus artist and honorary art babe Yoko Ono has mastered viewer participation. The concept behind her “Wish Tree” series began sometime after her husband’s death in 1981. It’s a relatively simple idea that has inspired Wish Trees to pop up all over the world. According to Yoko, anyone can create one by finding a tree on which to post her downloadable sign that reads (in Yoko’s handwriting, of course): “WISH TREE by Yoko Ono. Make a wish. Write it on a piece of paper. Fold it and tie it around a branch of a wish tree. Ask your friend to do the same. Keep wishing. Until the branches are covered with wishes.” People were then instructed to mail the wishes to the “Imagine Peace Tower” in Finland, where they will be collected to eventually become a giant tower, filled with the world’s wishes. With these short and simple instructions, Yoko is inspiring viewers to check in emotionally, and conjure up their strongest desires to create a lasting connection through a collaborative, participatory work. How beautiful is that? N

PATRON (n.)

The word “patron” derives from the Latin word patronas. Yes, Harry Potter heads: “Expecto Patronum!” Patronas in Latin refers to someone who supports and provides benefits to someone else. Luckily for us, patrons have long since gravitated to the arts. Patronage of the arts goes back centuries and a patron can wield a considerable amount of influence.

The 17th-century Italian artist Gian Lorenzo Bernini had a handful of powerful patrons in Rome over the course of his artistic career. Not only did his patrons grant him prestigious commissions, they protected him. When Bernini tried to murder his brother (upon discovering his brother was sleeping with his mistress), Bernini was slapped with a large fine. Luckily for him, he had friends in high places—in fact the highest place one could have a friend in Rome: the Vatican. Pope Urban absolved Bernini, waived the fee, and continued to grant him favors in the form of commissions.

While contemporary art patrons do not necessarily have the same motivations for hiring artists as popes once did, they still carry great influence in the art world. One of the greatest contemporary patrons of the arts, collector Peggy Guggenheim helped launch the careers of Man Ray and Mark Rothko, among others. Many successful artists, from Bernini to Rothko, owe a large part of their success to their patrons. G

PATTERN (n.)

In art, a pattern is a repeated decorative design, made up of smaller units called motifs. A pattern can also mean a model for creating things, such as the pattern a dressmaker uses for reference when making clothing. Nature herself makes patterns all the time—spirals, meanders, waves, foams, tilings, cracks, and those created by symmetries of rotation and reflection. You can even observe patterns in chance configurations, which can be really exciting because we begin to wonder: is there a natural order to things in the universe? We are attracted to patterns because they satisfy our need for regularity in the world; apparently, predictably repeating patterns soothe our chaotic monkey brains. J

PERFORMANCE ART (n.)

Performance art is any art that is centered on an action carried out or orchestrated by an artist, sometimes in collaboration with others. This can include dance and theater. If that seems way too vague, that’s because it totally is. Very few guidelines help determine what is and is not performance art, but there are some common characteristics. A big one is that performance art is time-based rather than a permanent artistic gesture. Documentation of the performance might live on forever, from photos and artifacts to a full video recording, but the performance itself is ephemeral. It is worth noting that a piece sometimes requires audience participation, but a lack of audience does not stop a work being performance art. It is the act itself that matters, even if no one witnessed it except the artist.

BAUHAUS, DESIGN, HIEROGLYPH

Performance art took off in earnest in the 1950s and 1960s with Fluxus “happenings,” but its roots can be traced all the way back to the Futurists and Dadaists of the early 20th century, when it played a big role in the development of the avant-garde. Perhaps the most moving example of performance art that I have seen is The Lovers (1988) by Serbian artist Marina Abramović, who regularly collaborated with her then partner, Ulay. They hatched a plan to walk the Great Wall of China, each starting at opposite ends. When they met in the middle, they would marry. The project stalled for years as the couple sought authorization from the Chinese government. By the time they could carry out their plan, their 12-year relationship had crumbled (oh man, I’m getting misty). Still, they went to China, began at opposite ends of the wall, and planned to meet in the middle (three months later!). But instead of getting married, the couple ended their relationship and went their separate ways. Breakups suck, but to be able to turn the experience into something so tragically beautiful highlights the powerful possibilities of performance art. J

PETROGLYPH (n.)

A petroglyph is an image created by removing part of a rock surface by incising, picking, carving, or scraping. Petroglyphs are found worldwide, and are often associated with prehistoric peoples. Some of the oldest examples date back to around 40,000 BCE. There are many theories about what these images could mean, ranging from astronomical markers, to maps, to other forms of symbolic communication, including a form of proto writing. The fact that petroglyphs from different continents show similarities has been the subject of much speculation. One of my favorite explanations is that the similarity of petroglyphs (and other atavistic or archetypal symbols) from different cultures and continents could be a result of the genetically inherited structure of the human brain. This theory reinforces the idea that we’re all connected through some primordial ancestor, and I like to get real groovy with that kind of thought. J

PHOTOREALISM (n.)

When artists are able to achieve photographic naturalism in any other medium, we call it photorealism. And, boy, do people go nuts over this stuff. Also known as hyperrealism or superrealism, most photorealist works are two-dimensional (just like drawings and paintings), but the same principles can also be applied to sculpture—check out the work of Australian sculptor Ron Mueck.

Since the invention of film photography, many artists have had a complicated relationship with the medium. Painters were especially reluctant to admit any reliance on photography, and some went as far as to consider using photographs cheating. Photorealists, in contrast, think that’s a load of BS and lean into the photographic aesthetic. Rather than feeling insecure about their use of reproducible images, photorealist artists use strategies to help create depth in a scene—for example, by introducing blurred areas that mimic camera focus. They work closely from photographs, some even painting over the top of printed photos to achieve maximum accuracy, like one of my all-time favorites—Austrian-born Gottfried Helnwein. Other techniques for achieving the correct perspective include mapping it out on a grid, or tracing the photograph using a projector or lightbox. N

PICTURESQUE (adj.)

Imagine you’re at a bed and breakfast in some quaint little town, looking out your window at a lovely scene of snow-dusted trees, a barn, and a walking bridge just beyond it. It’s charming. Looking at it makes you feel nice. You could describe this view as “picturesque.” Picturesque is an adjective often used to describe a beautiful scene in real life that looks like it could be a work of art, or a view that’s so lovely it should be translated into a composition. Picturesque art primarily describes landscapes, where some element of nature is incorporated within the scene.

The term originated with 18th-century British artist William Gilpin, who defined picturesque as a kind of beauty that would be pleasing in a picture. Gilpin later expanded on his definition of picturesque art, claiming it also needed to incorporate the sublime qualities of nature. He stated that the picturesque was both a mental practice of finding and observing picturesque views, as well as an artistic pursuit of recreating those views. Picturesque continues to be a popular theme in art (bet you could Google a painting similar to my earlier description in under two minutes, probably a Bob Ross). G

PLURALITY (n.)

In art, plurality or pluralism refers to art that is diverse and inclusive of various experiences and contexts. A pluralistic approach is characteristic of postmodernism and contemporary art. Contemporary art is hard to define and categorize, remember? And that is exactly what plurality wants.

Plurality in art is largely socially and politically responsive, which is why the idea first gained attention in the politically charged 1960s. In many ways, plurality challenges the very idea of artistic movements. It evades easy definition and commonality and instead relishes the ways in which people (and art) are dissimilar. C

POINTILLISM (n.)

See divisionism.

POLYPTYCH (n.)

See diptych.

POP ART (n.)

WHAAM! POW! POP! Campbell’s soup cans! Elvis! You’re probably wondering, has she had too much coffee? The answer is yes, of course, but also, I’m talking about pop art!

Pop art is an art movement that drew upon popular and commercial culture in the 1950s and 1960s in the U.S. and Britain. The name derives from “popular” and began as a revolt against the academic (and elitist) approach to modern art that came to dominate the scene by the 1950s. For many young artists, modern art had become stale, so rather than looking to the art world for inspiration they turned to sources such as Hollywood movies, advertising, product packaging, pop music, and comic books for their imagery. Among others, Roy Lichtenstein, Claes Oldenburg, and Andy Warhol began to reinterpret, repackage and resell commercial images as art. Critics were horrified by their use of “low” subject matter and their supposedly uncritical treatment of it. I think the English artist Richard Hamilton put it best when he listed the “characteristics of pop art” in a letter to his friends: “Pop art is: Popular (designed for a mass audience), Transient (short-term solution), Expendable (easily forgotten), Low cost, Mass-produced, Young (aimed at youth), Witty, Sexy, Gimmicky, Glamorous, Big business.

Ultimately, like most anti-establishment movements, pop art became mainstream and was ingrained into the modernist canon. Today, Warhols and Lichensteins sell for hundreds of millions of dollars and pop art has become a major moment in the history of Western art. Pow! for effort, though. J

PORTRAIT (n./adj.)

Portraits are works of art in which a figure is the central subject. If this definition feels broad, that’s because it is. A portrait can be—and likely has been—created in every medium known to man. Prehistoric people encrusted actual human skulls with decorations to make them look like the living (eat your heart out, Damien Hirst). Hell, us humans have even carved portraits into mountain sides (honestly, Mount Rushmore is so strange).

Portraits can be naturalistic—representing someone as they are, or idealized—making someone look slightly to majorly hotter than they actually are. One benefit of the idealized portrait (other than looking hotter) is the subject likely wouldn’t have to pose too long. Before photography, people who wanted their likeness represented by a professional artist, had to “sit” for a long-ass time. I use quotes here because, depending on the composition, some portraits required them to stand or hold an obscure pose for a long-ass time—fun!

Some artists make a living from portraits alone, but the advent of the camera has enabled anyone to be a portrait artist in seconds (shout out, portrait mode). When someone creates a portrait of themselves, we call this a self-portrait. Which leads me to our favorite 21st-century portrait: the selfie. But for that, I’ve got to pass you along to Corrie. N

POST-AND-LINTEL CONTSTRUCTION (n.)

If you’re looking for the simplest and oldest way to construct an opening, then post and lintel is the way to go. Two vertical elements (the posts) are used to support a horizontal element (the lintel), creating a covered space. Sounds simple enough, right? That’s not a trick question. It really is that simple. That is not to say that post-and-lintel construction is boring, however. In fact, one of the most famous examples of post-and-lintel building in the world attracts nearly one million visitors every year—I’m talking about Stonehenge, baby! Built sometime around 2500 BCE using stones weighing upward of 25 tons, Stonehenge is the most epic example of the old idiom “if it ain’t broke, don’t fix it.” J

POSTCOLONIALISM (n.)

Postcolonialism refers to a critical analysis of the cultural legacy of European imperial power, focusing on the human consequences of the control and exploitation of colonized people and their lands. The term is modeled on postmodernism because it is thought of as a reaction to, or departure from, colonialism in the same way postmodernism is a reaction to modernism. Defining the term is difficult, because the prefix post- implies that the term is temporal, denoting the immediate time after colonialism. This is a problem because it implies that colonialism is over, and we are now postcolonial (which is just flat out untrue).

In order to understand postcolonialism it helps to think of colonialism beyond just a system of government and consider the ideology and worldview that underlies that system. Postcolonialism, then, represents an ideological response to colonialist thought and examines the social and political power relationships that sustain colonialism (and neocolonialism, for that matter). Postcolonialism examines the social, political, and cultural narratives surrounding the colonizer and the colonized, and tries to understand colonial life from the point of view of the colonized. This is really important! Have you ever heard the old saying, “History is written by the victors”? Putting aside the fact that the phrase is horribly disrespectful to colonized peoples (so, what, they’re the losers? Are you for real?), the point that systems of knowledge are put in place by the dominant culture is true. This is because the purposeful systematic destruction of non-Western forms of knowledge played a big role in colonialism. When the Spanish arrived in Mexico in 1519, one of the first things they did was burn as many books as they could get their hands on. This has been common practice throughout the long, brutal history of colonial rule.

CERAMIC, CHINOISERIE, OIL PAINT

Postcolonial theory seeks to give colonized people the space to speak for themselves, to reclaim their histories, and to produce cultural discourses of philosophy, language, society, and economy outside of the dominant system of colonial power. Postcolonial theory is super complex, and this little entry can’t really do it justice. If you are interested in this kind of thing, check out some literature from Edward Said, Homi K. Bhabha, Walter Mignolo, and Dipesh Chakrabarty. J

POSTER (n.)

The poster is often overlooked in the art world—the thought being it’s something for students to tape on the walls of their dorm rooms. The history and impact of the poster is bigger than dorm-room decoration, however. (Not to discount the dorm-room poster. I taped plenty of them onto my grim cement walls in college and they really helped liven the place up.)

Posters first appeared in the 19th century, as a form of advertisement. As the name suggests, they were (and still are) “posted” in public places—perfect for marketing to the masses. Nineteenth-century posters were often designed by notable artists of the time. The French artist Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec famously made lithographic posters advertising the Moulin Rouge, for example (voulez-vous coucher avec moi).

Posters are visual communicators, and because of this their scope is actually much broader than marketing alone. Posters have also had a considerable role in politics—promoting as well as attacking policies, politicians, and campaigns. Posters have been a staple of propaganda art for centuries and serves as a powerful tool of political persuasion.

Band posters are also a big cultural and artistic phenomenon. And I don’t mean just a photo of Led Zeppelin in front of a private jet. I’m talking band posters designed by artists! Illustrators and graphic designers have made incredible artwork for musical artists all over the world. Creating posters for musicians allows artists to make money and to produce printed material that is easily accessed by the public. Music, art, accessibility—you gotta love all that. G

POSTIMPRESSIONISM (n.)

The movement that followed Impressionism was dubbed Postimpressionism. As you can tell, someone got really creative during the naming process. French artist Paul Cézanne is known as “the father of Postimpressionism”—which is especially fitting considering the movement consisted mostly of men. They held on to some elements of Impressionist style, but played more with bold outlines and unnatural color.

Postimpressionism acts as a bridge between Impressionism and Expressionism. Rather than following a natural progression, however, Postimpressionists reacted against Impressionism, which they believed lacked spiritual connection. As with many artistic movements, it’s a little tricky to define exactly, but Postimpressionist work remains largely unified by its rejection of Impressionist ideals while still using some Impressionist techniques. *In rebellious teenage voice*: “Shut up, Impressionism! I’m not following your GD rules anymore!” N

POSTMODERNISM (n.)

Skeptical, anti-authority, and ironic to the max. “Postmodernism” is the term used to describe a broad movement of ideas in philosophy and the arts that developed in the mid-to-late 20th century. More broadly, this term applies to the historical period that followed modernism. Postmodernism is broad as hell, but one unifying idea is that it challenges some of the more dominant ideas touted by modernism, particularly the grand narrative of Western progress (the idea that life is always moving in the “right” direction, improving and advancing toward an ideal world).

There’s been a consistent struggle to understand postmodernism in relation to modernism. Is it a reaction? Is it a continuation? Is it an anti movement? As such, there are plenty of 20th-century art movements that can be, and are, defined as both modern and postmodern. The modern movements pop art, neo-pop, neo-dada, conceptual art, performance art, installation art, and institutional critique are all sometimes considered postmodern art movements. Postmodern art often represents and embraces concepts such as pluralism, conflation of high and low culture, appropriation, deconstruction, self-awareness, and kitsch.

This is usually where I’d give you all a specific example of postmodern art, but the concept is big and rife with debate. I’m trying to come up with something that truly and fully represents the movement, but I’m coming up empty. Perhaps because the word “postmodern” is merely a human attempt at categorizing a whole bunch of ideas and creative output in terms of the progression of chronological history (see, this is me being very postmodern).

Postmodernism casts aside unrealistic idealism in favor of embracing the big mess of being a human, living in a society. “There is no such thing as universal truth. Embrace the endless contradictions maaan. But also, please appreciate me for the genius I am for recognizing that.” – A bunch of postmodern artists, probably. C

POSTWAR ART (n.)

Postwar art refers to art made in Europe between 1945 and 1970, in the wake of World War II. The atrocities witnessed during the conflict caused a monumental paradigm shift. Previous generations couldn’t have fathomed the destruction brought on by the two world wars, including mass genocide and the dropping of atomic bombs. Those who lived through it were understandably deeply affected.

This mass tragedy impacted many aspects of culture, including art. European nations were concerned with rebuilding their cultural identities after experiencing so much loss and destruction. Movements that began in this period include Capitalist Realism, Nouveau Réalisme, Fluxus, and Arte Povera. French artist Yves Klein (you know, with all the ultramarine blue) was a pioneer of the Nouveau Réalisme movement, which began in France in 1960 as a response to the American movements Neo-Dada and pop art. Even in his short life, Klein anticipated conceptual art, performance art, and laid much of the groundwork for what would become minimalism. He even patented a color, and I’ve got to say, I’m a sucker for “International Klein Blue.” Artist Gerhard Richter grew up in East Germany after the war, and combined socialist realism with new techniques in abstraction. His blurred photographs exaggerate what he perceived as the already ambiguous effect of photography. For example, newspapers could easily use photographs out of their original context for the purpose of manipulating the public.

Art historians tend to identify American postwar art as separate from the aforementioned examples. This is because the country was relatively unscathed by the war, which wasn’t fought on American soil. America had taken in many European artists, and with the American economy on the rise, new art movements were flourishing in the states. While Europe was recovering from their collective trauma, the United States was feeling somewhat triumphant. In retrospect the juxtaposition is definitely cringey. N

PRECISIONISM (n.)

The Precisionists were not a formal group of artists in an established sense (no manifesto, no Precisionist bread and cheese parties). They were a varied group of American artists working in a similar visual style and dealing with similar themes in the 1920s. The term “Precisionism” comes from their use of precise and simple lines and forms, clear outlines, and smooth surfaces. At the end of the 1920s, the director of New York’s Museum of Modern Art (MoMA), Alfred H. Barr, decided that they were the Precisionists and that was that.

The group’s members drew inspiration from the popular European artistic styles of the time, such as Cubism and Futurism. However, they hoped to create a separate and distinctly American style (national identity and whatnot). Much like the Futurists, Precisionists were often concerned with technological development. These artists focused on imagery depicting American industry, such as steel mills, bridges, and skyscrapers, and they were influenced by the modern medium of photography.

Besides artists such as Charles Sheeler and Charles Demuth, our girl Georgia O’Keeffe was lumped into the grouping with all her distinctly regional imagery of New York skyscrapers and Arizona desert flowers. Although, she most likely didn’t care to be defined that way. C

PRE-COLUMBIAN ART (n.)

In 1492, Columbus sailed the ocean blue, and it was a goddamn disaster.

The pre-Columbian era literally refers to the time preceding the arrival of Christopher Columbus to the Americas, so pre-Columbian art is art made before this initial European contact. Alternative terms are precolonial, precontact, and pre-Hispanic. Pre-Columbian art thrived throughout the Americas, from at least 13,000 BCE to the European conquests and, in some cases, continued for some time after. Many pre-Columbian cultures did not have writing systems, so they used visual art to express their cosmologies, worldviews, religions, and philosophies. Because the written records that did exist were deemed pagan sacrileges, the Catholic Europeans intentionally destroyed most of them, making the surviving visual art all the more valuable today.

Pre-Columbian art encompassed several different mediums including textiles, ceramics, sculpture, murals, wood panel, jewelry, and monumental architecture. Pre-Columbian figurative art ranged from highly stylized, abstracted figures to incredibly naturalistic portraiture. This range of styles and approaches to art-making tells us that the pre-Columbian world was not homogenous and, in fact, was made up of several different complex cultures, just as diverse and inspired as their European counterparts.

Unfortunately, it is almost impossible to consider pre-Columbian art without the shadow of colonialism looming overhead. The very name itself—pre-Columbian—situates all of the art and cultures of these civilizations as existing before the arrival of the West, lumping them all together as one kind of art. It is important to remember that these groups were all independent, with their own complex societal structures, ideologies, and visions of the world, and we do them a huge disservice if we reduce them to something that happened before Columbo came and wrecked the place. J

PREHISTORIC ART (n.)

Prehistoric art refers to art made a real long time ago. More specifically, it defines art made before there was a written record. Surviving examples are grouped into the Paleolithic era (beginning of time to around 8000 BCE) and the Neolithic era (around 10,000–4500 BCE). The art typically falls into one of two categories: mobiliary/portable art and parietal art (permanent art that cannot be taken on the move). Prehistoric art takes many different forms and can be representational (people, animals, and so on), decorative (symbols or patterns), or serve a utilitarian or symbolic function (think Stonehenge).

Cave art is perhaps the best-known form of prehistoric art. Paleolithic and Neolithic people drew and painted on the inside walls of caves. Evidence of this is still being discovered around the world today, some 20,000–30,000 years after they were made. That’s pretty damn cool. Prehistoric sculpture is also a big topic of scholarship. Ever heard of the Venus of Willendorf? She’s a lil' statue with a curvy figure who is thought to represent and celebrate female fertility. And don’t forget about the petroglyphs.

People have made art since the beginning of humankind and because much of it was made so long ago, there is a certain level of mystery to prehistoric art. We don’t always know how a piece was made, or why it was made in the first place. What we do know, is that humans have been expressing themselves through art for millennia. G

PRE-RAPHAELITE (n./adj.)

The Pre-Raphaelites were a group of radical Victorian artists who sought to challenge the artistic establishment of their day. The group, led by William Holman Hunt, John Everett Millais, and Dante Gabriel Rossetti, was a bunch of twenty-something British men born in the 19th century, so obviously they referred to themselves as a “brotherhood.” The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, colloquially known as the PRB, rejected the prevailing artistic style of the time, which emphasized elegance and classical compositions.

Despite what their name implies, the Pre-Raphaelites didn’t have any beef with the Renaissance master Raphael, but they were very much over his followers. And, like all good radicals, they had serious issues with authority. “Why should the composition be always apexed in pyramids? Why should the highest light always be on the principal figure? Why make one corner of the picture always in the shade?” argued Hunt, and his PRB bros backed him up, developing compositions that were detail oriented and intensely colored. All the while, the critics viewed them as nothing more than youthful troublemakers with no regard for art and taste.

It is likely that your 21st-century eyes don’t see anything shocking or radical about the luxuriously detailed paintings of long-haired women commonly associated with the Pre-Raphaelites. It was their early paintings that really worked prominent critics into a tizzy. The PRB depicted sacred scenes with an uncomfortable realism and brought attention to the harsh details of everyday life in Victorian London. Additionally, they portrayed those luxuriously long-haired women in a manner that was much more nuanced than had been seen in typical representations of women to date. The PRB often explored some of the more complicated aspects of womanhood at the time, such as dependence on marriage, female sexuality, and the experience of sex workers. “You’re telling me women have complex psychological experiences? Say whaaat???” – An angry Victorian critic, probably. C

PRIMITIVISM (n.)

Primitivism is problematic as hell—both as a concept and as a word. In fact, it was our very own Corrie who once said, “the term ‘primitivism’ should only be used when talking about how problematic it is.”

The name alone is messed up: all of these aspects of non-Western art are primitive, meaning they are unarticulated, uncivilized, and crude. It reflects the European fascination with what was then called “primitive art”—basically any art that is non-European, including works from Africa, the South Pacific, Indonesia, and the Americas. European artists were taken by the “purity” of these works, so untouched were they by the rigors of industrialized European society, so untamed, so naïve (ugh). They therefore sought to include stylistic elements of non-Western artforms in works of their own, which they then called “modern” and “avant-garde.” Such pieces then went on to become canonized in the history of modern art (I’m looking at you, Pablo Picasso).

Primitivism was not so much an aesthetic movement in the way that Impressionism and Cubism were. Rather, it was a sensibility or cultural attitude that influenced many diverse aspects of modern art. We can trace the roots of primitivism back to the late-19th century Romantics whose fascination with foreign civilizations led to them producing their own breed of problematic paintings, which fall under the label of Orientalism.

While the Orientalists were essentially playing dress up and make believe, with their scenes of turban-wearing ladies, hazy harems, and opium dens, primitivism took things a step further by using the forms and styles of non-Western cultures intentionally in Western works. Picasso’s Les Demoiselles d’Avignon (1907) is a prime example of this phenomenon. His nude ladies of the night boast full-on African masks (see cultural appropriation), evoking all of the unhinged eroticism and “otherness” that Europeans attributed to the arts of Africa. Here, Picasso used primitivism to highlight the terror of the unrepressed sexuality of the ladies (sex workers) of the brothel of Avignon. That’s real problematic, Picasso. We do not stan. J

PRINTMAKING (n./v.)

I have taken a total of one beginner printmaking class, so obviously I’m very qualified to explain this to you all. Printmakers are artists who specialize in print media—including screen printing, wood blocks, drypoint, lithographs, linoleum blocks, etching, engraving, monotypes and letter press … as rapper Soulja Boy would say, “prints on prints on prints.”

To break it down a little, all of those styles of prints I just listed can be categorized into four main printing techniques: intaglio, relief, serigraphy, and planographic. Intaglio was invented in the 15th century and involved carving into a metal plate (commonly copper), before filling the grooves with ink and printing onto a surface—producing the reverse of what’s on the plate. Relief, instead, involves cutting away areas of your block or plate before applying ink to the remaining surface, and pressing that image into paper. The actual printing can be achieved by your own brute strength, or by using a printing press. Screen printing—also called serigraphy—is a technique whereby ink is pushed through mesh screens that have been sectioned off to create the desired image using tape, glue, paper or stencils. Screen printing can be applied to paper and canvas, but also works really well on textiles so many designers use screen printing to print onto clothing. Lithography is a form of planographic printing that was invented in the 18th century and artists use a special crayon to draw (rather than carving) their print images. Monotypes are another form of planographic print which are “one of a kind” prints (mono, get it?). They’re not as common, but worth noting because most print media yield multiple copies, which is part of the appeal. At the same time, the exclusivity of having the only one in the whole world would certainly appeal to those who find value in the unique nature of an “original.”

AUCTION HOUSE, CARTOON, DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY

So, in summary, a printmaker participates in printmaking to produce prints (kind of fell down the alliteration rabbit hole there). N

PRIVATE COLLECTION (n.)

A private collection describes any number of artworks belonging to one individual. In a museum or art gallery context, the term signifies that a certain work is not owned by the institution in which the work is on display, but is on loan from an individual or organization, either for temporary exhibition or for the long term.

Private collections have been around since people started accumulating art in the ancient world—both in Europe and East Asia. During the Renaissance, art collecting became a favorite hobby of the wealthy merchant class. Nowadays, rich people are still out there buying all the art and amassing works in their private collections.

Because we now live in an era of the super-mega-wealthy (I’m talking billionaires), and the art world has become an outrageous and unregulated speculative market, the cost of fine artworks has skyrocketed in recent decades. This makes a lot of people think that collecting original art is unattainable and goes some way to explaining why they don’t give art and art history a great deal of attention.

That is not to say you can’t collect art! You, too, can start your own private collection. There are many ways in which to become involved in the world of collecting. You can buy art from independent artists at small galleries, art-school shows, and even online (I love me some Etsy). If you have a savvy eye and a few extra dollars, who says you can’t be a collector? J

PROBLEMATIC (adj.)

The most basic definition of problematic is “something that constitutes a problem or difficulty.” But this is our book, and despite what any negative reviews may say, we are anything but basic. For much of the millennial population, “problematic” has evolved to describe something that does harm, far beyond just presenting a problem. Because the word has evolved, and because we hear it being thrown around so much nowadays, the abundant use of the word “problematic” has become, well, problematic.

We tend to use the word to describe comments, actions, literature, media, or anything that causes harm or oppresses a group of people. There are many examples of problematic moments in art (see primitivism, Orientalism, pre-Columbian art, and cultural appropriation for some examples). We call these moments and works problematic because they represent times where minority groups have been disrespected, oppressed, and belittled by the dominant powers that be. The problem with problematic is that when you encounter something that represents a moment where this is happening, and you just call it problematic and move on, you’re brushing past the issue. By overly relying on the word to describe something you find offensive or harmful, you are undercutting the critique.

“Problematic” puts distance between the critic and the argument, placing the problem—racism, sexism, homophobia, and so on—in the issue itself, rather than accounting for the subjective reasons why the critic thinks harm is being done. Don’t get me wrong: we love saying “problematic” (and honestly, life in general is problematic), but without follow-up nothing is being done for social and cultural critique (which is part of what we are trying to do with this book, to tell you why and create a discourse). So, if you think something is problematic, ask why, and then try to answer those questions. J

PROCESS ART (n.)

You know the old inspirational adage, “life is about the journey, not the destination”? Process art is really into that idea. Not only does process art place a lot of emphasis on the journey, it also puts that journey on display for all to see.

With process art, the process of making (the journey) takes priority over the finished piece (the destination). The concept hit the art scene in the late 1960s as a development of, and also a challenge to, minimalism. While minimalist artists were striving for a purity that left no trace of the artist’s hand, process artists wanted you to notice their hand—and everything else that went into making a work of art what it was.

The term “process art” casts a wide net and encompasses several approaches to contemporary art-making, such as action painting, land art, and chance aesthetics. For example, the work of sculptor Lynda Benglis deals heavily with process and materiality. She is well known for creating brightly colored sculptures out of poured latex. For her 1969 work Quartered Meteor, Benglis slowly poured polyurethane (a type of plastic) foam into the corner of a room. The foam dried into a form similar to that of hot lava after a volcanic eruption (the corner is lava!). The work was then cast in lead as a way to capture the journey that the materials went on to become the final work. C

PROPAGANDA ART (n.)

Propaganda art has been around a long, long time. Coins with the profiles of ancient emperors on them? Propaganda art. Emotive posters calling men to war? Propaganda art. Paintings of political leaders looming large, taking on the appearance of actual divine beings? Propaganda art!

Propaganda is a form of communicating information—or misinformation—that supports a particular idea that is often ideological and/or political in nature. Propaganda wants to influence you; its aim is to get you on its side and behind its message. There are many different forms and styles of propaganda art and they’ve been made and circulated all over the globe.

I’m going to tell you about one of the most ridiculous propaganda posters ever, because I truly cannot stop myself. Beginning in the 1940s, there was a growing fear about venereal diseases (what we commonly refer to as sexually transmitted diseases or STDs today). There was a trend for propaganda art warning men, and soldiers in particular, to beware of “loose” women who could give them gonorrhea or syphilis. A poster from around this time, made by the United States government, depicts a gal with big boobs and a lot of makeup chatting with a smiling soldier. Above her are the words “BOOBY TRAP” in big letters and smaller text reading “Syphilis and Gonorrhea” at the bottom. Booby Trap?? It’s obviously misogynistic as hell, but honestly it makes me laugh out loud. This is so overt, so extreme, and so corny. But it gets its propagandistic message across clearly and memorably, which for propaganda art is a mark of success.

A closing word of advice: you need not beware of the “booby trap,” but you should be wary of propaganda art itself and whatever it is trying to convince you of. G

PROTEST ART (n.)

Protest art is art that is produced with the purpose of communicating an ideology that serves to bolster activist protest. Works cross the boundaries of all art genres, mediums, and disciplines, and can take many forms, including street art, fine art, mural painting, poster art, sculpture, zines, and even performance art.

Protest art is an important tool to form social consciousness and create networks and accessibility. Social movements produce works such as signs, banners, posters, and other printed materials—mediums that are usually cost-effective. Often, such art draws attention to a given cause during a demonstration or an act of civil disobedience. The vast majority of these works are ephemeral, characterized by their portability and disposability, and are frequently not authored or owned by any one person. Peace symbols, raised fists, and images of congregating masses are popular motifs, but protest art also can be much more elaborate.

In 1989, the Guerrilla Girls—an anonymous group of feminist, female activist artists dedicated to fighting sexism and racism in the art world—undertook a major project titled Do women have to be naked to get into the Met. Museum? The title kind of says it all: the work protested the lack of female artists in the Metropolitan Museum in New York City, while highlighting the abundance of female nudes. The image was based on French painter Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres’ famous work, Grande Odalisque (1814). In the case of the Guerrilla Girls’ work, the nude has a gorilla head, transforming this refined symbol of feminine sensuality into a hybrid monster that seems to roar out the title question. The image was displayed on the sides of buses in New York City, in the spaces traditionally reserved for announcements of upcoming exhibitions. By using humor, shock, and clever advertising, the Guerilla Girls created an iconic piece of protest art that ruffled quite a few academic feathers. J

PROVENANCE (n.)

Provenance is the history of ownership of a work of art and it is incredibly important in determining authenticity and legal ownership. Want an example? Here you go: a museumgoer at the Thyssen-Bornemisza National Museum in Madrid was checking out the artwork on view when they happened upon one in particular that gave them pause: Rue Saint-Honoré, Après-midi, Effet de Pluie from 1897 by Impressionist painter Camille Pissarro. The painting’s composition, while lovely, was not what caused this reaction. Rather this museum visitor was a family friend to the Cassirer family who had been forced to give the painting up to the Nazis before fleeing Germany in 1939 and had been trying to find the painting ever since.

The provenance of the Pissarro painting is as follows: Lilly Cassirer was a Jewish art collector who the Nazis forced into selling her painting for a greatly undervalued rate. After World War II, the painting went missing, before eventually being purchased by the Spanish government and arriving at the Madrid museum. What ensued was a long and complex legal battle that ended in favor of the museum. The point is, provenance is important! Art can change hands many times and knowing all the ownerships of a work of art can help art institutions avoid cases like the stolen Pissarro, as well as sniff out potential forgeries. In short, do your research and keep the receipts, my friends. G

PSYCHEDELIC ART (n.)

Psychedelic art is art inspired by psychedelic experiences. Technically speaking, psychedelic experiences are drug-induced hallucinations that follow the ingestion of psychedelic chemical compounds, such as those found in acid, shrooms, mescaline, or DMT. However, similar altered states of consciousness can occur during other practices, such as meditation, breathwork, fasting, or hopping into a float tank.

The production of psychedelic art doesn’t necessarily require the use of psychedelics. In fact, as some of you (groovy) readers may be aware, the use of psychedelics can impair motor function, making it difficult to engage in tasks that require fine motor skills, such as drawing or painting. However, psychedelic art is inspired by these altered states of consciousness and tries to capture the visual effects of such experiences.

The term “psychedelic art” is often used to define the creative output of 1960s counterculture (when LSD was all the rage). It engages a variety of media including psychedelic rock music, light shows, video, and two-dimensional art and design. Characteristics of psychedelic art include: metaphysical and surrealist subject matter, vibrant colors, kaleidoscopic patterns, phosphenes, fractals, spirals, and warping of images and spaces. The trippy posters used to advertise concerts for 1960s musical icons such as Janis Joplin and The Doors are prime examples of psychedelic visual art from this period.

Since we’re talking about profound, life-altering drugs, it seems fitting to see how far the rabbit hole goes. The word “psychedelic” means “mind manifesting.” In this sense, any attempt to depict one’s inner world (or psyche) through art could be considered psychedelic art. It’s really not that wild of an idea—engaging in a psychedelic experience and engaging in art-making are both paths of self-exploration. While the term “psychedelic art” has been somewhat sanitized over the years, to simply describe (and often dismiss) the use of drugs, as well as the value of the art inspired by such states, psychedelic art may be able to tell us something more profound about the nature of our reality.

P.S. Aldous Huxley’s The Doors of Perception and Heaven and Hell (1954) are must reads if you’re into drugs and art. C

PUBLIC ART (n.)

Public art is any art that is made with the intention of being staged or exhibited in the physical public domain. The work’s location is almost always a very important aspect of public art, and site specificity plays a significant role in understanding the content of a work. Having said that, in most instances, the relationship between the content of a piece and its audience—that is, what the art is saying, and to whom—is just as important, if not more so, than the work’s physical location.

HARD-EDGE ABSTRACTION, MYSTICISM

The Vietnam Veterans Memorial is an example of public art that is impactful, both for its location (in Washington, D.C., the nation’s capital) and for its ability to allow viewers to interact with the work. Created by the American sculptor and architect, Maya Lin, the memorial consists of two 246-foot,9-inch (75.21-meter) long, black granite walls, polished to a high finish and etched with the names of the 58,318 servicemen who gave their lives in the Vietnam War. Visitors to the memorial can locate the names of their lost loved ones through a directory at the entry to the monument. As they walk the length of the walls, visitors are impacted by the gravity of the human loss of life represented by the sheer volume of names recorded there. The memorial is individualized and personal because it gives space to each soldier’s name, rather than representing the sacrifice they made metaphorically through the use of figurative subject matter.

As with many examples of public art that also serve as a monument or memorial, this work garnered controversy. Some people thought it was too morbid, too severe, or just too plain ugly. To appease those who protested the memorial, a bronze statue named The Three Servicemen (sometimes called The Three Soldiers) was erected a short distance away from Lin’s memorial. In their final arrangement, the statue and the wall appear to interact with one another, with the soldiers looking on in solemn tribute at the names of their fallen comrades. A compromise we can all agree on. J

PUTTI (n.)

Little, naked babies … with wings! No doubt you’ve seen them in various formats—perhaps as little sculpted figurines in your grandmother’s house or emblazoned across Valentine’s Day cards. These chubby guys are frequently referred to as “cupids” and “cherubs,” but throughout art history, they are commonly referred to as “putti.”

Putti is an Italian word and, boy, did Italian Renaissance artists love to feature plump little angel boys in their works. Putti is plural, putto singular; both terms are masculine, as there are no female putti.

These nude, infant boys originated in Greco-Roman mythology, serving as little helpers to the god of love and desire, Eros (in Greek mythology) and Cupid (in Roman mythology). Greco-Roman culture was very on trend during the Renaissance, so artists would have seen these figures in art from antiquity and knew about their role in mythology. Because of their origin, putti are often associated with love and romance in art. However, they also came to serve as Christian symbols, as they were often depicted as winged, baby angels surrounding figures such as the Virgin Mary. The layered symbolism of putti is vast. If you’d like to learn more, check out our podcast episode “Weird Putti” because, yes, there’s enough to say about them to fill an entire episode, if not several. G

Q

QI (n.)

In traditional Chinese culture, qi (pronounced, and sometimes spelled, “ch’i”) is believed to be a vital force or energy that is a part of every living thing. Qi translates literally as “air,” but figuratively as “energy flow” or “life force.” According to tradition, qi is in all humans, animals, and plants. It is what grants life to everything in nature, everything in the universe. Qi is the underlying principle of most traditional Chinese philosophical thought, with the ultimate goal being to keep qi balanced and flowing harmoniously.

So how does this figure into art? For millennia, it was the Chinese artist’s responsibility to communicate the living energy, the qi, of what they were painting. Active in the early 900s, Chinese landscape painter Jing Hao remarked that “it is vital energy (qi) that gives authenticity to the likeness of form and shape of a painting. Without such authenticity the image dies.” According to Jing Hao, qi is the most important principle of all Chinese aesthetics. His most celebrated work, Mount Lu, exemplifies this principle: jagged mountain peaks fill over ninety percent of the painting, communicating the vital force of the monumental mountains. By contrast, buildings and humans are tiny as hell, and almost go unnoticed. This image reflects the natural balance of nature: humans and human-made objects are merely dots on the face of the Earth; the mountain was there long before us, and the mountain will be there long after we are gone. All is balanced as it should be, and the vital qi imbued in the grandeur of nature is given center stage. J

R

READYMADE (n.)

Once upon a time, a French artist by the name of Marcel Duchamp purchased an unused urinal. He inscribed that urinal with the moniker R. Mutt and sent it away to be displayed at a very fancy art show. The fancy people in charge of the fancy art show found this in poor taste and promptly rejected the work. Titled Fountain (1917), this work is one of the most widely known examples of a readymade. The term “readymade” was coined by Duchamp to describe works of art made from recognizable, manufactured, everyday objects.

Readymades are simply objects that exist already, but are given a new purpose as art. Once they become art, they often have an incredible ability to make people angry. In the case of Fountain, Duchamp and his absurdist Dada pals had this to say in the work’s defence: “Whether Mr. Mutt with his own hands made the fountain or not has no importance. He CHOSE it. He took an ordinary article of life, and placed it so that its useful significance disappeared under the new title and point of view—created a new thought for that object.” In other words, even though Duchamp didn’t make the object, he gave it the purpose of being art. In doing so, he transformed the definition of what art could be.

So, when you find yourself in the kitchenware section of Target, CHOOSING between twelve different models of blender, remind yourself that this is in fact an artistic act. And after much deliberation, you can pick up that Vitamix, head to the checkout, and tell the cashier about all the brilliant ideas concerning the functionality of objects and the nature of art that you are expressing with this very purchase. Then you, my friend, have your very own readymade. C

RED-FIGURE & BLACK-FIGURE (adj.)

The ancient Greeks loved their vases, man, and the art history world can’t shut up about them. The terms “red-figure” and “black-figure” refer to methods of vase painting that the Greeks developed and perfected between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE. Black-figure vase painting involved the application of figural and ornamental motifs using a slip (liquid clay) that turned black during firing, while the background was left the color of the clay. The potter incised the slip or added white and purple enhancements (mixtures of pigment and clay) to add detail. In contrast, the decorative motifs on red-figure vases remained the color of the clay and the background, filled in with slip, turned black.

The red-figure technique emerged around 530 BCE, possibly when the potter Andokides and his workshop realized, “hey, uh, it’s way easier to draw on this vase with slip than to carve out forms.” Red-figure work gradually replaced the black-figure technique, as the use of a brush in the red-figure technique was better suited to the naturalistic representation of anatomy, garments, and emotions.

Favorite subjects for red- and black-figure vases included stories of Greek heroes and mythology—in particular (appropriately) the Greek god of wine, Dionysus. Old Dio was often featured on a krater, a vase used for the mixing of wine with water, the traditional drink of the Greek symposia, or male drinking parties. The presence of Dionysus on the krater symbolized his blessing over the symposium, guaranteeing that everyone would have a great time and get rip-roaringly drunk. J

RELIC (n.)

In the broadest sense, a relic is an object that has survived from an earlier time and has some deep historical or sentimental value. In a narrower, more art historical sense, a relic is part of a deceased holy person’s belongings or body that is kept as an object of reverence. Such an object usually resides in an elaborately decorated vessel called a reliquary.

The practice of keeping the bones, teeth, or other body parts of a deceased holy person dates back thousands of years and has manifested in many religions, from Christianity to Buddhism to Islam. Aside from being totally metal, this practice has led to the creation of some beautiful architecture to house the reliquary that houses the relic—acting like a massive morbid nesting doll, if you will (if nesting dolls had finger bones in them). J

CRAFTIVISM, PALETTE, PROPAGANDA ART

RELIEF (n.)

Relief is a sculptural technique in which sculpted elements—that is, the subject matter—are raised above the background plane of the material from which they are sculpted, usually stone or marble. There are two main kinds of relief sculpture: bas-relief and high relief. The former refers to relief sculpture where the figures emerge only slightly from the surface of the work. This type of relief (also called low relief) was very popular in the ancient world, with some of the best examples hailing from Mesopotamia and Egypt. In high relief, sculpted figures project almost in the round from the surface of the work. The classical Greek Elgin Marbles are a great example of high-relief sculpture and display the medium’s great potential for depicting action and drama. Aren’t you “relief-ed” that you know about this now? J

RELIGIOUS ICON (n.)

In art history, “religious icon” isn’t a reference to Jesus Christ’s celebrity, but instead alludes to representations of spiritual “celebrities,” so-to-speak, painted onto small surfaces. Such an object becomes somewhat sacred in its own right. The tradition is associated with orthodox Christian and Catholic faiths, where popular subjects include Christ, Mary, and the many saints. The intention is for the paintings to symbolize their subjects so that viewers can pray through the icon, to the being it represents. While religious icons were überpopular during the early Byzantine era, they became a source of controversy when iconoclasts decided the icons themselves were being worshipped instead of the beings represented (“Sacrilege!” they cried in unison). It probably didn’t help that many believers associated icons with miracles.

Acheiropoieta—translating as “icons made without hands”—are icons thought to have come about through divine intervention. The enduring image of La Virgen de Guadalupe (Our Lady of Guadalupe) is a prime example, and happens to be a story my Nana told me as a child. As the story goes, the virgin appeared multiple times as an apparition before indigenous Mexican peasant Juan Diego in 1531. She requested that a church be built, and when the archbishop didn’t believe sweet Juan, Our Lady hooked him up with some roses in his cloak to present as evidence. Bless Juan for having some faith, because when he dropped the roses at the archbishop’s feet, an image of La Virgen de Guadalupe, just as Juan had seen her, was there on the interior of his cloak. On top of her icon’s miraculous origin story, Our Lady is also said to bring about miracles, including curing the terminally ill. Some people are overly concerned with the authenticity of this story, while for many, the symbolic meaning is enough. Her image appears on candles, shirts, and pendants—including the one my sweet Nana gifted me. Thanks, Nan. N

RELIQUARY (n.)

A reliquary is a container designed to hold a relic, be it the finger bone of a saint, the beard clippings of Muhammad, or a piece of the cross on which Christ was crucified. Because of the value placed on relics—based on the belief that they carry spiritual power—they often have their very own fancy containers to keep them safe.

A reliquary’s primary function is to protect a relic, but it may also be a work of art in its own right, crafted by artisans from such rich materials as gold, ivory, and precious stones. The reliquary of Sainte Foy is one of the most famous: a small wooden statue containing the remains of the Christian saint, it is covered in gold, silver, and gems. You can’t actually see the remains inside (some reliquaries allow a peek through little glass peep-holes or feature compartments that open) but the decoration tells you that you’re looking at something very special. Go ahead, make a bejeweled box to hold your baby teeth, and just like Sainte Foy, you can have your own precious reliquary. G

REPRESENTATION (n.)

The term “representation” refers broadly to the depiction of something else, and it’s constantly happening in art (seriously, I feel like it has been used A LOT in this book). Representation in art and media is important, because the messages that are being sent help to form our perceptions of people, concepts, social constructs, and so on. A photograph of “Queer Eye’s” Jonathan Van Ness, the cartoon of Jonathan Van Ness drawn for the series “Big Mouth,” and me writing his name out here all count as representations of JVN (the initials count too). It’s also notable that Jonathan does the voice over for his “Big Mouth” character—meaning he gets to represent himself through his own voice. This is a more authentic representation because JVN has a hand in how he is represented—this is what I call “responsible representation.” N

REPRODUCTION (n.)

Not the kind of reproduction you learned about in your sex-education class, reproduction in art is when a copy is made of an original, and relates primarily to paintings, prints, and drawings. Most often, reproductions are reprinted photographs of an original work of art.

A reproduction is made with permission from the artist (or their estate if they’re no longer alive), therefore one made without permission is a fake or forgery. Reproductions make art accessible to a wider audience and far more affordable for art lovers. I cannot afford the 1909 painting Girl Under a Japanese Umbrella by German Expressionist painter Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, but I can afford the reproduction of this painting that is printed on canvas and hangs in my bedroom. I love her as much as the real deal. G

RESEARCH-BASED PRACTICE (n.)

See material-based practice.

RESIN (n.)

Resin is freakin’ cool. This super versatile medium has become very popular with sculptors and painters alike. Resin can be either natural or synthetic. Natural resins derive from plants and insects, whereas synthetic resins (for example, alkyd and acrylic) are manufactured industrially. While the compound is traditionally used in polishes and varnishes, many contemporary artists and designers are finding new and inventive ways to work resin into their practice. It’s lightweight, durable, and pretty cheap.

Resin-casting offers a popular way to work with resin, and is used in the production of collectible toys, models, and figures, as well as in small-scale jewelry production. The maker fills a mold with a liquid synthetic resin, which then hardens. The method is great for producing objects in bulk.

In the 1960s, many artists experimented with industrial materials in their works, and resin became a favorite. The French-born American artist known as Arman used polyester resin in one of his most popular works, Bluebeard’s Wife (1969). He molded the torso of a woman and filled the mold with resin and shaving brushes. When the resin hardened, the brushes stayed suspended in the material, creating an unusual work of contradictions: the female nude torso combined with the common implements of male grooming, and the body reminiscent of classical sculpture but made of mass-produced materials and objects.

It is possible to paint with resin and some artists have fun playing with tinted resin in their practice. They can dye resin and pour it onto panel to create very colorful and shiny paintings. These are damn impressive because the artist has to actively control the poured resin, which can be a long and manually intensive process. J

RETINAL ART (n.)

Have we mentioned that we love Marcel Duchamp? This is another term that invokes that awesome weirdo, and in fact is a term he coined himself. For Duchamp, “retinal art” is art that appeals exclusively to the eye, rather than to the mind. Duchamp, who found success as a young painter in Paris, had grown tired of the constraints of easel painting. He soon abandoned painting almost entirely and spent the majority of his life attempting to defy so-called retinal art. From presenting objects themselves as art with his famous readymades, to investigating the possibilities of chance aesthetics, Duchamp never stopped trying to challenge the limits of retinal art, and his experiments paved the way for generations of conceptual artists after him. J

ROBOT ART (n.)

See AI art.

ROCOCO (n./adj.)

Rococo gets a bad rep for being a frivolous and corny style, which, to be honest, it can be. But this is frivolity with purpose (or at least some think so). Rococo began in 18th-century France and, as in the Baroque period that preceded it, Rococo art and architecture was hyperaware of the impact it had on its viewers. Drama, elaborate decoration, and sensuous curves—this is evocative stuff—and that was the point! The term “Rococo” derives from the French rocaille for “rock” or “rubble,” and stems from a trend for garden grottos in France, which were decorated with artfully manufactured rock and shell forms.

Rococo art was born in the homes of the wealthy French, as a form of décor that was whimsical, pretty, and didn’t get too deep. Unlike Baroque art, the Rococo style was not overly concerned with messages of religion or mortality, but instead focused on romantic tales and pastoral or exotic imagery. Likewise, Rococo architecture was meant to entertain and be visually pleasing. Paintings of couples kissing in lush gardens and thoroughly decorated exterior and interior spaces were on brand. Is it whimsical, decorous, and a bit shallow? Yes. But that’s what the French elite wanted in the 18th century! Rococo is a reflection of the wealthy culture that drove artistic tastes at the time—that is, until the French revolutionaries came in and shut aaall that shit down. G

ROMANESQUE (n./adj.)

Like many people who have gone through a rough breakup, Europe had a hard time letting Rome go. We get it, it can be difficult to move on, and we all cope in different ways—from listening to sad music and writing letters we don’t send, to developing an entire architectural style. And this is exactly what Charlemagne did following his coronation as Holy Roman Emperor in 800 CE. Around this time, Europe was in the beginning stages of moving out of the Dark Ages (see Middle Ages), and ruins of Roman architecture littered the continent. Legends of the great Roman Empire had passed down through the generations since the fall of Rome in the 5th century, and rather than putting all of Rome’s things in a box and forgetting about them, Charlemagne instead decided to build churches in the Romanesque style in an effort to unite his empire and validate his reign with the glory of the ancient empire that had preceded him.

Romanesque buildings look just how they sound—kinda Roman. They were conceived with fundamental Roman architectural elements in mind, so expect a lot of rounded arches. In fact, the arch is the main element of most Romanesque buildings, many of which take the form of a giant extended arch (called a barrel vault). This simple construction allowed for the creation of immense and weighty structures with very simple decoration. Most early Romanesque buildings had a wooden roof, as the barrel vault couldn’t quite support a stone one. This all changed around the 12th century, when barrel vaults fell out of favor to groin vaults (essentially, two arches that cross) and load-bearing walls could be lighter and more ornate. This eventually lead Europe to dump the Romanesque for the Gothic. We’re proud of you for moving on, Euro-babe, you do you, boo boo. J

ROMANTICISM (n.)

The word “romantic” is likely to conjure up a scene of red rose petals, a candlelit dinner, and some sexy jams by the Prince of Motown, Marvin Gaye. Of course, this is the contemporary notion of romantic love, and it is the way the term is most commonly used.

Romanticism is certainly related to what we think of as romantic love, and the Romantics likely would have approved of the sensual night you have planned with your boo. This is because Romanticism and romantic love are similar in so far as they both prioritize intense emotion. But the term “Romanticism” refers to a much larger worldview, one that embraces the subjective experience of the individual and glorifies sentimentality and nature.

Romanticism was an artistic and intellectual movement that emerged in Europe toward the end of the 18th century. The Romantics were pretty much over the Industrial Revolution and Age of Enlightenment with all their cold-hearted over-rationalization. The Romantics wanted to feel. And feel they did.

In visual art, this manifested in a number of ways, including the creation of awe-inspiring landscape paintings and ornate Gothic architecture. The Romantics sought sublime experience in life and in art. Some Romantic artists, such my boy the English poet, painter, and printmaker William Blake, got real mystical with it, viewing poetry and art as a means of expressing some pretty intense and trippy spiritual experiences. When the industrial world seemed harsh and unfeeling, the Romantics went inward to honor their personal experience. C

ROSE WINDOW (n.)

Rose—or wheel—window is the name given to a large, circular, stained-glass window made up of radiating geometric patterns of smaller windows. It symbolizes that many parts make up a whole. Rose windows were a popular stained-glass motif during the Gothic period and their name alludes to the patterns which resemble the spokes of a wheel, or the petals of a rather geometric rose. My 21st-century eyes want to call it a kaleidoscope window, but I don’t think we need to keep piling on names.

Rose windows were especially popular in 12th- through 16th-century France and feature prominently on the front of Amiens, Reims, and Notre-Dame (Paris) cathedrals. But the French weren’t the only ones getting down with the rose window; it also appeared on cathedrals in Italy, Germany, and England.

Although they are sometimes situated on the sides of a cathedral—on what’s called the transept walls—the majorly sweet ones are located on the prominent West end of the nave. If you recall from whatever version of Scouts you participated in, the sun rises in the East and sets in the West. This means that, when the sun is setting, light floods in through the rose window, shining a colorful projection down the nave that eventually lands on the altar before disappearing with the sun. Depending on your beliefs, you can take this to be a message straight from the divine, or simply the result of a giant, man-made kaleidoscope. Either way—pretty damn impressive. N

RUBENESQUE (adj.)

“Voluptuous” is a lovely word; it evokes sensual imagery and rolls off the tongue easily. “Rubenesque,” by comparison, is not a word that sounds like a caress when you say it. Believe it or not, voluptuous and Rubenesque both describe a similar physique. Both adjectives are typically used to describe a woman’s body, and history has shown us that men have long occupied themselves with describing and depicting women’s bodies … often in the nude.

The etymology of Rubenesque derives from the paintings of Peter Paul Rubens, a Flemish Baroque painter who depicted many full-figured ladies in his compositions (and some thick boys, too). Like many of his peers, Rubens painted largely religious and mythological scenes in which human figures were the stars. Greatly influenced by ancient Greek and Roman art, he believed the bodies portrayed in art from antiquity were ideal and beautiful.

Unlike the gaunt or paunchy Euro bods of his day, Rubens’ heroes sported bulging muscles. His goddesses had curving waists and powerful legs. His intention was not to fetishize bigger women but, in many ways, to show off his painterly skills: the rendering of dimpled flesh above a butt, the rolls of a back as it turns in quarter profile, the hips that swell before tapering down toward the knees. In fact, the women in Rubens’ paintings weren’t much different from the naked male bodies he painted. It's just that people seem to notice nude women more than nude men. G

ITALIAN RENAISSANCE, POSTER, STYLIZED

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SALON-STYLE HANG (n.)

The Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture (Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture) in Paris had a salon. It was the 17th century and all the French artists had their hair styled in elaborate curls on-site at the académie. Kidding. It was the 17th century, but the salon in this context was an exhibition space for the academy’s artists, not a hair salon. Each year, artists at the Royal Academy would hang their best paintings and display their best sculptures in the salon for all to see.

It was from this tradition, that the salon-style method of hanging works of art was born. In order to display as many artworks as possible, the Royal Academy covered its walls with paintings, hanging them from floor to ceiling. By maximizing the height of the walls, salon-style hanging allowed for many artworks to be displayed at once. In its original context, a salon-style hang placed the largest paintings at the top of a wall (typically historical or religious in context) and the smaller, more intimate paintings, such as still lifes and portraits toward eye level.

Hanging artwork salon-style is still in practice today, both for public exhibitions and in private interior spaces. These days, it’s defined more as an arrangement of multiple artworks on a wall, and is commonly referred to as a “gallery-wall” hang in modern interior design speak. A salon-style arrangement of various works over your couch could look real cool, but a word to the wise: it’s tricky to get things just right and can potentially result in a lot of holes in your wall. G

SCULPTURE (n.)

Sculptures are three-dimensional representations made via many techniques and out of various materials. Artists who sculpt are dubbed sculptors, and they carve, mold, cast, or assemble their sculptures. Sculpting dates back to prehistoric times, and the methods of creating sculpture evolved alongside humans.

Bronze casting developed in ancient Greece and was a popular technique for its reproducibility. Marble carving also had its heyday in antiquity and remained a popular medium in Italy through the Baroque. For example, Baroque sculptor Gian Lorenzo Bernini had mastered the art of making marble appear as soft, indent-able flesh. While some contemporary artists do still work with marble, I’d venture to say it’s much more commonly found on 21st-century countertops than in artists’ studios.

Conventional sculpting materials—bronze, marble, and clay—have given way to everyday items and industrial materials in postmodern art. Readymade sculptures have become increasingly popular, as have works such as YBA artist Michael Landy’s Sculpture (2007). Sculpture is a large metal box that Landy has painted white. On its face are listed the series name “No Frills,” title (Sculpture), medium (paint on metal), and proportions—all painted in simple, black text. The work reduces sculpture to the bare minimum consumer product and, in doing so, reduces the artist to a brand name. Sorry if this feels a little bleak, but that’s postmodernism for you. N

SELF-PORTRAIT/SELFIE (n.)

When an artist creates a portrait of themselves, it is called a self-portrait.

A self-portrait can take any number of forms including a drawing, painting, sculpture, photograph, video, or even a mixed-media representation.

A self-portrait is an opportunity for an artist to represent the subject they know best: themselves. In doing so, the artist makes a series of intentional choices that depicts themselves in a certain light (literally and figuratively). Our favorite sad boy Vincent van Gogh painted several self-portraits, one of them right after the infamous ear incident in 1889. In Self-Portrait with a Bandaged Ear, van Gogh paints himself in his studio. He looks cold and melancholic (fitting, considering the events that had recently transpired in his life) and the large bandage covering his mutilated ear is a focal point in the composition, basically saying to the viewer: “Hey! this thing happened to my ear! It was important and also I feel some type a’ way about it.”

There is a contemporary trend that is a whole lot like the self-portrait: the #selfie. By now I think we all know that there is an art to the selfie, so can we please just stop pretending otherwise? In the same way a self-portrait is crafted through a series of choices made by the artist, a selfie is often meticulously planned, framed, and chosen to convey something about the person taking it. Maybe a pensive pose and a black-and-white filter means the selfie-taker has been deep in thought lately, or perhaps the artist in question wants to show the world how quirky and fashionable they are, so they choose an angle that highlights their vintage thrift store earrings. A selfie is a self-portrait, which is a self-created artistic representation. C

SERPENTINE (adj.)

When something is described as “serpentine,” it means it resembles the shape or movement of a serpent, or snake. The term describes sinuous shapes and lines. A serpentine road, for instance, winds and curves, turning one way and another (the kind of road that might make you barf if you get travel sick).

This is a great descriptive word to use for visual analysis, because many examples of serpentine shapes exist throughout art history. Rococo decoration was full of serpentine design work; metalwork and manuscripts from the Middle Ages feature tons of twisty, serpentine, animal forms and geometric designs. The Italian phrase figura serpentinata literally translates as “serpentine figure,” and was used to describe a human figure that spirals around a central axis, so that the lower limbs face one direction and the torso faces the opposite direction—a popular pose in Mannerist art.

Why the serpent? Well, the serpent features largely throughout the history of mankind. Serpents appear in belief systems all over the world, sometimes representing water or vitality, and other times representing cunning and evil (the serpent is a great example of the nature of duality, good vs. evil, and all that). Because serpents are wiggly, fast, and sometimes deadly, our monkey brains evolved to fear them. But we are also fascinated by their shape and movements. It makes sense, then, that we’ve been incorporating their shape into our visual art for millennia. J

SFUMATO (n.)

Sfumato is an Italian word for when oil paint creates an effect that is hazy, smoky, and soft. The term was coined in the Italian Renaissance, and originates from the also-Italian word fumo for smoke. Renaissance golden boy, Leonardo da Vinci particularly favored this technique. He blended and softened oil paint, removing lines, and dulling vibrant colors to create an effect that looked like a fine layer of smoke covering the distant landscape. Just take a close peep at da Vinci’s Mona Lisa (well, not literally, you won’t have much luck getting through the crowds and rope at the Louvre), where there’s a fun landscape stretching behind her: you can sense the distance of the land because it has a hazy atmosphere, just as things in the distance appear in real life. Sfumato became a popular technique in Renaissance art since lots of artists wanted to be cool, like da Vinci. G

SILHOUETTE (n.)

A silhouette is the image of a person, animal, object, or scene represented as a solid shape of a single color—usually black—with its edges matching the outline of the subject. This is different from an outline, because in a silhouette, the image appears as a solid shape, often contrasted by the background to create a dramatic effect. Silhouettes can be incorporated successfully in a variety of media, such as cut-paper portraits and illustrations, photography, graphic design, architecture, and film. They lend themselves especially well to shadow theater, where shadow puppets are backlit through a screen to an audience, a popular form of traditional entertainment in Indonesia. You see silhouettes all around, from the mudflap girl seen on the backs of trucks to the iPod commercials of the early 2000s and even in our Art History Babes logo (drawn by yours truly) of our original bunny mascot, Bumblebee (RIP).

In the 19th century, silhouette portraits were extremely popular in Europe, and later became fashionable in America. The tradition is associated with wealthy Victorians, and conjures images of powdered wigs, dainty bows, and big ole bustles (the bigger the better, baby).

Much later, American artist Kara Walker flipped this tradition on its head. She is best known for her panoramic friezes of cut-paper silhouettes, usually black figures against a white wall, that address the history of American slavery and racism through violent and unsettling imagery. Here, the forms of the silhouettes themselves become a powerful story-telling tool, illustrating shockingly recognizable subject matter while also concealing the details and leaving much to our imaginations. It is powerful stuff, made all the more impactful by the dramatic silhouettes telling the story. J

SITE SPECIFICITY (n.)

A site-specific artwork is a work designed for a particular space. Site specificity is often a central characteristic of installation art and earth art, however, it can play a role in many types of art.

The extent to which an artwork is site specific usually depends on the extent to which the work relies on the space. A good way to determine a work’s level of site specificity is to ask the question “If I placed this work in my backyard, would it change the work’s meaning?”

A prime example of this is the tale of American artist Richard Serra and his Titled Arc, created in 1981. The work, a 120 foot long, 12 foot high (36.6 x 3.7 meter), sheet of rusted steel was commissioned and created specifically for a public plaza in Manhattan. It ran right through the middle of the space, blocking certain views and pathways. Serra created the arc with the intention of getting in the way. And it sure did get in the way. Have you ever accidentally gotten in the way of a commuting New Yorker during rush hour (“HEY, I’m walking heah!!!”)? I don’t recommend it. People rushing about, to and from their jobs, lunch dates, and other important business engagements had to navigate around the arc. Ideally, the arc would cause them to take time to consider themselves and their movement throughout the space. However, the project didn’t exactly pan out that way. The work received a great deal of backlash and, in 1989, Titled Arc was removed. Serra chose not to reinstall the work in another location because, according to him, “to remove the work is to destroy the work.” In this case, Tilted Arc could only ever truly exist in the environment for which it was created. It was wholly site specific. C

THE SITUATIONIST INTERNATIONAL (n.)

Full disclosure, I have never seen an episode of “Jersey Shore,” but I always thought “The Situation” was a dope nickname. Think about it. A situation is not a particular thing or characteristic, it is a whole set of circumstances in which one finds themselves. It encompasses so much. Man, if it wasn’t already taken, I’d wanna be called The Situation.

A mid-20th-century group of European artists and thinkers known as the Situationist International (SI) was also intrigued by the concept of the situation, so much so that they believed it to be the antidote to many of our capitalist woes. Basically, the SI mixed together Marxism and surrealism to form its own unique critique of capitalism. In 1967, founding member Guy Debord wrote The Society of Spectacle in which he called out the “spectacle” as central to all the problems with capitalism, society, and modern life. The spectacle, in this context, is the idea that the experience of everyday life has been commodified and people have downgraded from being to having. To counteract the spectacle, the SI constructed situations! One such example is the dérive. The dérive is an unmapped journey, often through an urban landscape. The person engaged in the dérive is encouraged to drop everyday associations and ignore typical cues of how to traverse a landscape (so roads, paths, signage, and so on). Instead, they are supposed to simply let themselves relate to the space in whatever way they wish. So wandering … but make it art.

The ultimate goal of the SI was to reinvigorate the personal human experience and to make cultural production (making art) less of a commodity and more a part of everyday life. This shifts our experience from having to being. Hallelujah! That is what I’m talking about, Guy. Corrie "The Situation" Hendricks

COMIC STRIP, TEXTILE, UKIYO-E

SKETCHBOOK (n.)

Sketch—a word for both loose drawing and questionable behavior. Artists use a sketchbook to keep track of and work through their ideas. Sketching feels like the obvious thing to do, but you can also write, make a collage, whatever your little heart desires! It’s a place to house preliminary drawings, concepts, and any other inspiring ephemera. Sketchbooks come in a wide array of shapes and sizes—lined, unlined, even graph paper if you want to be a control freak about it. Because sketchbooks can become as personal as diaries, many artists have multiple volumes so they can have private and public sketchbooks. Whether they’re meant for sharing or not, sketchbooks and the ways in which they’re used depend entirely on the owner and their personal preference. There’s no right or wrong way to do it, and if anyone tries to tell you otherwise … pretty sketch. N

SOUND ART (n.)

Sound art is pretty much what it sounds like (ha!)—art made from, and about, sound. If an artwork is labeled “sound art” then sound is either a primary component of the work, or the work is exploring something about the nature of sound.

One of the first established sound artists was Italian Futurist artist Luigi Russolo. Russolo wrote a manifesto called The Art of Noises (1913), and is known for his noise performance concerts and “noise machines.” Inspired by the clangor of factory machinery and the unsettling crack of World War I weaponry, these performances explored the common sounds of the modern era. At the opposite end of the spectrum is American composer John Cage’s controversial and equally influential 4’33’’. This 1952 musical work composed by Cage consisted of four minutes and thirty-three seconds of silence. So, I guess the absence of sound is on the table too.

Russolo and Cage are considered some of the earliest and most important artists to work with noise experimentation, which means you have them to thank for that obscure lo-fi glitch metal band that you’ve been really into lately. C

SPHINX (n.)

What goes on four feet in the morning, two feet at noon, and three feet in the evening?

If you guessed, Man: as an infant, he crawls on all fours; as an adult, he walks on two legs; and in old age, he uses a walking stick, then you are safe! Otherwise, the terrible sphinx would have eaten you alive. This was the great challenge facing the tragic Greek hero Oedipus, who had to solve the sphinx’s riddle before he was allowed entry into the city of Thebes.

The sphinx is a fun hybrid monster and is usually associated with guarding an entrance or pathway (like a troll). In order to go through, one must appease the wishes of the creature. In the case of the great Egyptian sphinx, we see a beast with the head of a man and the body of a lion guarding the entrance to the Giza necropolis. In the Greek myth, however, the monster is usually portrayed with the body of a lion, the wings of an eagle, a serpent- headed tail, and, you guessed it, the head of a woman! If you’re wondering why this might be, there’s a whole branch of “monster theory” called “the monstrous feminine” that explores the history of turning women into monsters. It would almost be funny if it wasn’t so damn sexist. J

STAINED-GLASS WINDOW (n./adj.)

The first time I walked into a cathedral that had stained-glass windows, I was immediately struck by a feeling of otherworldliness. At one point, I realized I was whispering and almost tiptoeing around, trying to be as quiet as possible. Now, I was an eight-year-old in the 1990s, so dazzling, colorful special effects were not new to me. But the effect nevertheless instilled me with awe.

Now, imagine being that child, but in the Middle Ages, and you are walking into a Gothic cathedral for the first time. The light immediately changes, and you are cast into a dark space illuminated by the jewel-toned light coming through enormous stained-glass windows. It is now abundantly clear that you just walked into God’s house, and you bet your ass you’re going to be on your best behavior and be fully present to receive the majesty of God himself.

As a material, stained glass is glass that is colored by adding metallic salts, while in its molten state. The glass is then crafted into windows. The maker arranges small pieces of glass to form patterns or pictures, held together, traditionally, using strips of lead and supported by a rigid frame. Traditionally, the designs of these windows featured narratives from the Bible or they represented saints and patrons or used symbolic motifs. This is because the typical congregation at a Gothic church was mostly illiterate, so these images were crucial for spreading the stories in the Bible. Episodes from the life of Christ were favorite subjects for these designs, however, stained-glass windows could also be heavily abstracted, with recognizable figures secondary to the overall design.

Stained glass is fundamental to the mysterious quality we’ve come to associate with the Gothic. Next time you walk into a cathedral with stained-glass windows, check to see if you are whispering, because you probably will be. J

STENCIL (n./v.)

Even if art isn’t your specialty, you’re likely familiar with the idea of the stencil. It’s a fairly universal tool that’s used by preschoolers and architects alike. Stencils are templates, essentially, pieces of two-dimensional material with shapes, letters, or patterns cut out of them so that you can draw or paint through the holes. A stencil provides consistency and uniformity, which is enormously useful in many artistic endeavors. As far as materials go, although I’m not a huge fan of plastic (it’s so bad for the environment, people), it does hold up a lot better than cardboard and provides more flexibility than metal.

Screen printers often use stencils, sometimes several at once, in order to achieve various shapes and colors. Street artists also use them to quickly throw up a work, or to create a motif that helps to build their notoriety and recognition. Street-art stencils come in the form of text and/or images and can range in size from inches to covering the sides of buildings.

Stencils are eternally useful items and I don’t see them disappearing from artists’ toolkits or kindergarten classrooms anytime soon. N

STILL LIFE (n.)

If you’ve ever taken an introductory drawing or painting class, chances are you’ve made a still life. A still life is a work of art in which inanimate objects such as flowers, fruits, and tableware are the primary subject of the composition. It may seem simple or dull, but a still life is a valuable genre of study when learning how to draw and/or paint. A still life can invite you to celebrate the good things in life, such as food and wine, or it can get fairly deep in terms of symbolic content, reminding you of the fragility of your own mortality.

The term “still life” comes from the Dutch word stilleven which makes sooo much sense because the Dutch were truly crushing it in the still life painting game from the 16th through 18th centuries. In fact, the term “Dutch still life” is regularly used in reference to the genre. While still life as a term originated in 16th-century Holland, the practice of depicting still life scenes can be traced back to ancient Rome, and it continues to be a popular genre in contemporary art—including those introductory art classes. G

STREET ART (n.)

“Street art” is an all-encompassing term for artwork created in urban areas, usually without permission. People tend to think of graffiti when they hear the term “street art,” but I’m here to tell you that graffiti is only one of the many forms of street art. As it has become a more commonly accepted form of art, street art has expanded to include stenciling, paste-ups, and even yarn bombing. It’s become so widely accepted in the twenty-first century, that street art has even started to show up on the art market (which really messes with its street cred).

Street art has really taken off in recent years, and never has this been more apparent than when the Babes did Berlin. Because of its recent, turbulent history, Germany’s capital city has many thriving counterculture communities, including a vibrant population of street artists. The buildings and streets of Berlin are covered in graffiti, murals, and posters—the city is an absolute treat for the eyes.

Street artist El Bocho, originally from Spain, is well known in Berlin for working with the city’s architecture and pasting his work up rather than painting directly onto surfaces. Artists like El Bocho rely on motifs to keep their work recognizable. One of his most popular motifs is a paste-up character dubbed Little Lucy. Lucy has hair reminiscent of a mushroom with big, wide eyes, and she’s constantly thinking up new ways to kill her pet cat, Kitti (went from cute to morbid real fast there). This juxtaposition of sweet and sinister might be what makes Berliners love Little Lucy. This admiration, coupled with the portability of his work, means that often a Little Lucy paste up is taken down shortly after it goes up. While Little Lucy is native to Berlin, according to El Bocho, she and her Kitti enjoy traveling, so keep an eye out for her in your own major cities in years to come. N

STUDIO (n.)

For many millennials, hearing the word “studio” elicits images of a 200-square- foot (20-square-meter) apartment with a bare lightbulb hanging from the ceiling, a bathroom with a door that doesn’t quite close, single-pane windows, and warped “wood” floors, all for the “low” monthly rent of $1,200! For artists and designers, however, the studio is a workroom essential for the creative process. In an artist’s studio, you will not only find all manner of art supplies, books, reference materials, drafting tables, and easels, you will also find pretty much anything that the artist could consider inspirational. Everyday objects, leaves, twigs, pamphlets—literally anything that catches the artist’s eye finds a place to live in their studio. So, if you ever want to get a good look at the inner world of an artist, peep their studio. J

STUPA (n.)

A stupa is a dome-shaped structure that acts as a Buddhist shrine. These structures typically hold the relics of Buddhist monks or nuns—with several that are said to hold relics of the Buddha himself— and are used as places of meditation. Stupas became popular in India after the Emperor Ashoka (r. 273—232 BCE) recovered the relics of the Buddha. According to legend, Ashoka erected 84,000 stupas during his rule to distribute the relics all across India. This is definitely an exaggeration, but it is true that Ashoka was instrumental to the spread of Buddhism throughout the region, and the stupa was a huge part of that.

AI ART, EMBROIDERY, MIDCENTURY MODERN

The stupa’s dome-shape makes it especially suited to achieve its ultimate function—to act as a mandala, or symbol, of the universe. At the top of stupa is a yasti, or spire, which symbolizes the axis mundi (a line through the earth’s center around which the universe is thought to revolve). The axis symbolizes the center of the cosmos partitioning the world into the four cardinal directions: north, south, east, and west (you can remember this by the fun mnemonic “Never Eat Soggy Waffles”). Then add two more points in there: the nadir and the zenith, or the highest and lowest points, above and below.

You do not enter the stupa itself, but instead practice circumambulation, which is a fancy word for walking around a sacred object or idol. This is called pradakhshina in Buddhism and has been an important ritual since early times. Sacred structures such as stupas always have a pradakhshina path around them. You walk the sacred path in a clockwise direction with the goal of unburdening yourself from worldly stressors, connecting to the positive energy of the temple, and symbolically walking through the different challenges presented to the Buddha on his path to enlightenment. By walking this path, you bring yourself one step closer to enlightenment (see what I did there?). J

STYLIZED (adj./v.)

When a form is stylized, that means it was not made with the intention to look naturalistic, or true to reality. This is evident in the artworks of peoples from ancient Andean civilizations, who created figures with unrealistic human proportions (usually very large heads and small bodies) and often forms rendered in a geometric style. This isn’t to say that the ancients didn’t understand how to depict humans naturalistically, but rather their use of stylized figures tells us that their interest was in the concept behind the image, usually spiritual in nature.

A more recent example would be the elongated figures of the Italian artist, Amedeo Modigliani, who became known for his paintings of women with real long necks. They didn’t actually look like that (medically, I think it’s impossible) but by stylizing their bodies, the artist managed to convey their delicate elegance. J

THE SUBLIME (n.)

Sublime is not just an early 1990s California ska punk band known for bangers such as What I Got. The Sublime is a weighty concept developed under the umbrella of aesthetic philosophy. It refers to the idea of greatness beyond all possibility of calculation, and has roots going as far back as the 1st century ce.

The Anglo-Irish philosopher Edmund Burke developed the theory in terms of art. In 1757, Burke published A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful. He defined the Sublime as the artistic result of the strongest emotion a human is capable of feeling. In his opinion, that emotion was terror. Eighteenth-century Romantics, such as JMW Turner and Caspar David Friedrich attempted to capture this experience through painting landscapes. Turner was known for painting powerful sea storms, which certainly illicit great beauty and great terror. Friedrich’s Monk by the Sea and Wanderer Above the Sea of Fog are widely referenced in discussions of the Sublime. Both detail a human figure standing with their back to the viewer, facing out to sea; this allows the viewer to transport themselves to the subject’s position. Each figure confronts the “sublime” characteristics of open water; the wanderer confronts the sea’s power, while the monk confronts its expanse.

If you’ve ever stood before the open ocean, you may be able to relate to this experience. The ocean is beautiful, but is also overwhelming—too much to fully comprehend. It can be meditative, it can be joyful, and it can also be fear-inducing. But by standing in that space, you understand that you are experiencing something far greater than yourself. That’s the Sublime! It’s intense and mystical and scary and you kind of feel like you’re on the edge of a precipice, about to be swallowed by an endless abyss … but you’re like, into it. C

SUPREMATISM (n.)

Suprematism is an artistic style that Russian avant-garde artist Kazimir Malevich created in 1913. Malevich wanted to break free from traditional, representational styles in art and found the square to be the best subject for doing just that. He called it the “suprematist square” because, in his opinion, it claimed supremacy over organic forms. All hail the square! Soon Malevich began painting other colorful geometric shapes that appeared to float over white backgrounds. Space, color, and form are all key components of Suprematism.

Unfortunately (but unsurprisingly) for Malevich, communist officials did not dig Suprematism and Malevich had to resort to painting in the Socialist Realist style toward the end of his life. That hurts my heart. Live your truth, Malevich! However, Suprematism impacted other artists in Russia and later inspired Constructivism besides a host of contemporary abstract artists. And that warms my heart. G

SURREALISM (n.)

It is a well-known, yet barely understood fact that every night human beings fall asleep and proceed to hallucinate wildly in the form of dreams. The chaotic dream state, a product of the unconscious mind, often feels entirely rational, yet wholly irrational at the same time. Dreaming is a completely bizarre human behavior and no one truly understands it.

In 1920s Europe, a cultural movement arose that tried to understand. The Surrealists were a group of artists, writers, and thinkers who sought to explore dream states, the unconscious mind, and their relationship to reality. In his 1924 Manifeste du surréalisme, French poet André Breton established Surrealism as an attempt to “resolve the previously contradictory conditions of dream and reality into an absolute reality, a super-reality.” He suggested that this be done through the practices of free association, dream analysis, and automatism. It was thought that these practices could illuminate unconscious knowledge and desires. When this information was fused with conscious understanding it would give rise to the great reality, the ultimate reality, the reality to end all realities—super-reality.

If you are shaking your head in utter confusion right now, you are not alone. The idea of a reality more real than actual reality is not a particularly easy concept to grasp (nor a particularly easy state to access). Surrealist artists, such as Salvador Dalí and his infamous Melting Clocks (The Persistence of Memory, 1931) expressed this super-reality through visual art. While there wasn’t much stylistic unity within the movement, a surrealist work of art can be characterized by dream-like imagery (obvi), heavy use of symbolism, randomness or chaos, amplification of the bizarre, and illogical juxtaposition. In the case of the Melting Clocks, Dalí paints three clocks liquifying as though they were made from a gooey, viscous substance. The clocks are set against a relatively natural landscape that is intersected by geometric shapes. In the center is an indistinguishable monstrous, fish-like being that is intended to represent the artist. This work has been interpreted as a commentary on Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity, the nature of time and space, and the collapse of cosmic order. Dalí himself claimed the clocks were inspired by some cheese he watched melt in the sun. C

SYMBOLISM (n.)

Symbols are all about representation. They are things that stand for, or represent, other things. In art, symbols are often material or everyday objects that convey more complex, abstract concepts. Symbolism in art is a big deal. Throughout art history, artists have aimed to convey certain messages in their artwork, and symbols act as valuable tools for hinting at, or expressing, something without literally depicting it.

Nature is neat, and because of that undeniable fact, artists often incorporate symbolic images from nature into their work. For example, an image of the laurel can convey an array of meanings from victory, to education, to eternal life. Furthermore, symbolic meaning in art can vary widely depending on the historical and cultural context in which it was made.

Take the bat. In Western visual culture, the bat is often linked with the devil, darkness, evil, vampires, and overall spooky stuff. The bat in Chinese art, however, has a totally different symbolic message. The word “bat” in Chinese has the same pronunciation as “blessing.” So, bats are viewed as auspicious winged creatures that are common motifs throughout Chinese art and decoration (most commonly on household objects such as vases and plates). I relate to this symbol of the bat so much more. Just because bats are nocturnal (and okay, vampire bats are not ideal, but that’s just one species of bats) does not mean they’re evil. Bats are our greatest nocturnal pollinators and we need those lil' guys. Long story short, I love bats and symbolism is complicated. G

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TAG (n./v.)

A tag is as basic as it gets in the world of graffiti—think of it as a signature. The practice of tagging is when a graffiti artist tags their name onto a public space. Now, this can be their literal name, or a moniker created by the artist. Commonly used tagging mediums are spray paints and marker pens. Tags themselves are generally stylized, which sometimes makes them hard to read. Essential to the tagging process is keeping it simple and doing it as quickly as possible—the vast majority of tagging is done without asking for permission, which is technically vandalism. Even as street art becomes increasingly commercially popular, tagging is still often considered attention-seeking behavior rather than art. Natalie was here

TAPESTRY (n.)

A tapestry is a woven or embroidered fabric, often used as a wall hanging or a furniture covering. As an artform, the tapestry has a long and varied history. The ancient Egyptians would shroud their dead in woven tapestries, while the ancient Greeks used them as wall coverings for municipal buildings. In the 1400s, Flemish weavers introduced an innovation to tapestry weaving, developing techniques that allowed them to reproduce painterly effects into a design using a loom. In Renaissance Europe, tapestries often represented highly detailed, realistic portrayals of narrative scenes.

The tapestry is a beautifully rich example of textile art. As an artform it is often overlooked in favor of painting and sculpture. Like painting, however, the arts of weaving and embroidery require a specific set of creative skills. Furthermore, as a visual artform the tapestry has operated in a very similar way to painting throughout history. In fact, the visual tapestry style of a given culture and time period often reflects the corresponding painting style. For example, Chinese silk tapestries depicting landscapes reflect the style of landscape painting that was popular at the time.

When I think of the word “tapestry,” my mind is hit with images of colorful hanging wall tapestries displaying decorative mandalas or psychedelic geometric designs, which served as the backdrop to many a basement smoke circle during college. While the word “tapestry” was originally designated for a piece of thick woven or embroidered fabric, the advent of print technology has led to the inclusion of mass-produced wall hangings. In recent years, companies such as Society6 and Redbubble have made it super easy (perhaps too easy?) to create, sell, and purchase printed tapestries, so your college weed den can have the authentic heady vibe it deserves. C

TEMPERA PAINT (n.)

Tempera paint—sometimes called egg tempera—has been around in Europe since the 12th century and was the preferred medium of painters through the Italian Renaissance. Early on, artists made it by mixing water, oil, and pigment into a paste-like texture. The egg tempera formula was developed sometime during the 15th century and is made by suspending color pigments in egg yolk, which helps to create a rich finish.

The paint is pretty tempera-mental and artists need to become masters of the technique, learning all the necessary steps for success, such as priming the canvas with gesso and applying several layers to achieve the desired results. Even with the invention of new paints, this tediousness didn’t deter painters, as it was used to paint such masterpieces as Sandro Botticelli’s Primavera (1485) and Andrew Wyeth’s Christina’s World (1948). N

TEMPLE (n.)

A temple is a building devoted to the worship of a god or multiple gods. In this sense, you could call pretty much any church, mosque, cathedral, basilica, synagogue, or *ahem* my body a temple. Typically, though, the word “temple” is used for religious buildings in the Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain religions, as well as those of ancient civilizations.

The forms and functions of temples vary, though they are often considered by believers to be in some sense the house of one or more deities. Usually, offerings of some sort are made to the deity, rituals are enacted, and a special group of people—called the clergy—maintain and operate the temple. The degree to which the entire population of believers can access the building varies significantly; often parts, or even all of the main building can only be accessed by the clergy.

CONTRAPPOSTO, DIMENSIONS, SKETCHBOOK

Temples are often a part of a larger precinct (called a temple complex), which may contain many other buildings that aren’t explicitly religious in nature, such as administrative centers for an elite priest class or royalty. Examples of temples and temple complexes are seen all over the world and speak to the shared human impetus to construct the fanciest homes possible for the gods, so that, in turn, they will bestow their blessings upon us. And if you are a ruler trying to show off your power and devoutness to the masses, it doesn’t hurt to build a lavish temple to dazzle the populace. J

TENEBRISM (n.)

Tenebrism takes chiaroscuro and turns it up to eleven. While chiaroscuro presents a gentle gradation from dark to light values, tenebrism slaps you in the face with super dramatic (one could even say violent) contrasts between light and dark. Taken from the Italian word tenebroso—meaning “dark, gloomy, mysterious”—tenebrism is a style of painting that certainly conveys all three. Sometimes areas of the painting were kept completely black, with only a couple of small areas left strongly illuminated. These pictures were sometimes referred to as night pictures, or as being painted in the dark manner. It makes so much sense, then, that the technique became popular in Baroque painting, and that it was especially a favorite of that old vagabond, Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio. Baroque (along with Caravaggio) was known for being very dramatic, therefore Caravaggio is often credited as being the tenebrist extraordinaire. J

TERRA COTTA (n.)

Terra cotta is Italian for “baked earth,” although the medium is way older than the Italian language. Terra cotta starts out as clay, and clay is from the earth, and the earth is old. People have been baking earth and transforming it into sculpture, vessels, and architecture for thousands of years. It is still valued for its durability and low economic cost today.

Terra cotta is made from porous clay that, once formed into the desired shape, is dried out and fired in a kiln. It can be glazed or unglazed. There are many examples of terra cotta in art, but one of the most famous is that of the Terra-cotta Warriors from China—life-sized statues that occupy the tomb complex of Chinese emperor Qin Shi Huang in Shaanxi province. The statues, which number more than 8,000 in total, stood in the tomb for more than 2,000 years, guarding the resting place of their emperor, before being accidentally discovered by farmers in 1974. Because of the moldability of terra cotta, each sculpture is incredibly detailed with textured armor and unique facial features. The fact that we can observe these details in the warriors thousands of years later speaks to the durability of the medium. Terra cotta is an enduring and magically pliable resource from our planet—thank you, Mama Earth. G

TERTIARY COLORS (n.)

You got your primaries (red, blue, yellow), you got your secondaries (orange, green, purple) and then you got your tertiaries! Tertiary colors are made up of combinations of the primary and secondary colors. These combinations are red-orange, yellow-orange, yellow-green, blue-green, blue-purple, and red-purple. If you want to have fun with it, you can call these colors vermillion, amber, chartreuse, teal, violet, and magenta, respectively.

These colors are all based on a traditional RYB (that’s red-yellow-blue) color wheel. Some critics say this model is outdated, and that the whole primary, secondary, tertiary color model is reductive and limiting. However, I’m gonna leave that one up to the color theorists. J

TEXT ART (n.)

Text art, also called ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) art, is what we call the copy-and-paste artform seen above. The objective is to create an image entirely out of text symbols. It’s the opposite of typography in that the text is the medium. This interesting form of digital art can be used to create a wide range of images from animals, to cartoon characters, to designs of a more graphic nature. Text artists are often credited by whichever website displays their work, and some artists include their initials embedded in, or around, the image as a signature. Text art like the Cigar Smoking Mona above is made for reproduction by way of typing ctrl+c and ctrl+v, making it accessible to anyone with internet access and a keyboard.

Oh, and it really helps if you squint. You’re welcome :) N

TEXT-BASED ART (n.)

Text-based art is where language and visual literacy come together—and, boy, is it magical. Text-based artists employ any conventional artform—painting, drawing, collage, and so on—to make work in which text plays a prominent role. This is not to be confused (as we first did) with text art, which is a digital artform.

The style began in the 1950s, as a response to the high art movement of Abstract Expressionism. Text-based artists felt that the Abstract Expressionists were missing out on some really important stuff by attempting to omit all representation, so they began reintroducing content a little at a time in the form of text.

Artists like Barbara Kruger, Jenny Holzer and Deborah Kass all create work with text to varying degrees. Kass borrows from her pop-art “daddies’” (her word, not mine) aesthetic to create her own work. Her 2015 OY/YO sculpture takes inspiration from fellow text-based artist Ed Ruscha’s painting, OOF (1962). Kass’s freestanding sculpture stands at 8 feet (2.4 meters) tall and is painted the same bold yellow of Ruscha’s letters in OOF. The sculpture was placed in Kass’s hometown of Brooklyn, New York. “Oy” is a Yiddish word to express annoyance, while “yo” has the dual meanings of “I am” in Spanish, and a way to greet someone in slang–together, the three represent the diverse community they represent. Kass’s text-based work reclaims the aesthetic of successful 20th century male artists as her own, playing with appropriation and adding herself to the canon brazenly—hell yeah, Deb. N

TEXTILE (n.)

At its most basic definition, a textile is a type of cloth or woven fabric. This fabric consists of a network of natural or artificial fibers called yarn. Yarn is produced by spinning raw fibers of wool, flax, cotton, hemp, or other materials to produce long strands. Textiles are then formed by weaving, knitting, crocheting, knotting or tatting, felting, or braiding the yarn.

Textiles have a rich history: pretty much every major civilization created and used textiles. These range from decorative works called tapestries that are hung on walls, to garments designed for wearing. These works depict many different kinds of subject matter, from geometric patterns to full on didactic scenes.

The Inca Empire—which reigned over the territory that makes up modern-day Peru in the 1400s—considered textiles more precious than gold. The Inca used fine textiles to cement imperial alliances, to celebrate their bravest soldiers, and to communicate status (such as marriage and class) to others within the community. Textiles still play a huge role in human civilization, with the textile industries making up a sizeable portion of the GDP of many countries. We spend a lot of money on textiles and what we buy dictates the direction of fashions, so just keep in mind: every time you buy a shirt or some pants, you are directly affecting the future of textile art (no pressure). J

TOMB (n.)

A tomb is a structure to house the dead. Tombs take many forms, ranging from massive structures, such as pyramids with cavernous underground spaces, to small vaults just big enough for one.

A tomb can tell us much about the person/people buried within and what they valued in life (and in death). I bet you’ve heard of the Egyptian pharaoh Tutankhamen, commonly nicknamed King Tut. Most of what we know about Tutankhamen, and how he was prepared for the Egyptian afterlife, comes from what was discovered in his tomb, such as stories from his reign, his worldly treasures, and his actual remains.

It’s important to remember tombs are the resting places of people who were once alive. It can be easy to disassociate from humans who have been dead for thousands of years. Something about our relationship with time can prevent us from going into the tomb of someone who died say 100–200 years before us, but the longer the person in that tomb has been dead, the more chill we are about digging it up. People in archaeological and anthropological fields are still debating what we excavate, what belongs in exhibitions, and how we treat those human remains and objects once they’re removed from their tombs. I often wonder if King Tut would be pissed about his body and treasures being exhibited all over the world, or if he would be pleased with his enduring fame. I really do think about that … like a lot. G

TRIBAL ART (n.)

Tribal art is the name given to art made by indigenous communities. It’s painting with a broad brush, but since the field of art history has been built on Eurocentrism, it’s not uncommon for large and disparate groups to get lumped together into one homogenous “other.”

Tribal art encompasses indigenous art from every corner of the earth, including Africa, the Pacific Islands, India, and the Americas. Much of what we know as tribal art is utilitarian in purpose—there is much clay pottery, clothing, statues, and masks. In addition to everyday objects, many of items are created for ceremonial use, like the early-to-mid 20th century Female Ancestor Figure Used in the Yam Harvest Festival (Noukwi) from the Kwoma people in Papua New Guinea. Traditionally, viewing rights for this figure would be very exclusive, but it now lives proudly on display at the Crocker Art Museum in Sacramento, California—for all to see! Another example is the Kòmò Helmet Mask (Kòmòkun) (19th–mid-20th century) from the Komo society in Bamana and throughout Mandé-speaking regions of West Africa. This particular mask has long tusks, a domed head, and an open mouth. It’s made from wood and various animal parts that include antelope tusks, a bird skull, and porcupine quills, which were all chosen for their symbolic meanings. Members of the Komo association are responsible for enforcing community laws, therefore their headdress is meant to visually intimidate viewers. This mask was made and used by a Komo society member, and when he wore it to meetings, I bet it elicited some damn respect.

African tribal art is often treated as a single style of art, but as you probably know, Africa is a huuuge continent made up of many countries, not to mention regions and tribes. The term tribal art is used pretty frequently and can be helpful in categorizing art, but the term itself is quite vague and can be problematic. N

TRIPTYCH (n.)

See diptych.

TYPOGRAPHY (n.)

TYPOGRAPHY! Typography is the visual display of text. It is the design and placement of text in places where we can see them—for example, in books or on posters and, more recently, on TV and computer screens. With the advent of printmaking, civilizations around the world figured out how to design and reprint letters.

From a contemporary standpoint, the term “typography” relates to a typeface—that is, style of font—that is designed in a cohesive style and can be replicated and printed easily. A quick typography history lesson: typeface designer (cool job, right?) Max Miedinger created what is now called the Helvetica font in 1957 and that font is still dominant in the typography world (for real, they made a whole documentary about it). If you learn how to spot Helvetica, you will see it all over the place. That’s the quiet power of typography, it’s literally everywhere you look.

Typography itself is an artform, but it can also be incorporated into art compositions. American artist Barbara Kruger is famous for creating black-and-white collages overlaid with red text strips with white Helvetica font (told you it’s everywhere!) that comment on issues such as women’s civil rights. Kruger’s use of typography is so cool and distinct that clothing brand Supreme 100% ripped it off for their logos—same white font with red overlay and everything (don’t try and deny it, we have eyes).

Remember when I said typography is everywhere? This text you’re reading right this second is typography—BOOM. G

ART BRUT, DIGITAL ART, READYMADE

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UKIYO-E (n.)

Beautiful ladies, kabuki actors, epic landscapes, sumo wrestlers, people navigating city streets, and sex stuff! These are some of the common subjects of ukiyo-e art produced in Japan during the Edo period (1603–1868).

Ukiyo-e is Japanese for “pictures of the floating world,” that world being pleasure districts in cities. In the floating world you could leisurely drink tea, see a live performance, visit a sex worker, stroll over an idyllic bridge, eat some good food—you know, have a pleasurable time.

Ukiyo-e also refers to paintings and prints depicting such scenes. Instead of going out into the floating world, the pleasures of the floating world came to people buying this art. The genre is largely comprised of paintings and prints, with woodcuts being the most popular and prolific artform of the period. Japanese trade with European countries helped spread ukiyo-e throughout the world, and ukiyo-e prints particularly inspired Impressionist artists such as American artist Mary Cassatt and sweet, sad Vincent van Gogh.

Perhaps you’ve met someone with a Japanese woodblock tattoo? No doubt you’ve seen ukiyo-e woodblock king Katsushika Hokusai’s The Great Wave off Kanagawa (c. 1829–33) reprinted on a coffee mug, or a T-shirt, or a notebook, or something right? You’ve seen it, I know you have. The appeal of ukiyo-e is still very real because scenes of people enjoying themselves and romantic vistas are subjects a lot of people connect to—because who doesn’t want to have a good time? G

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VANITAS (n.)

Flowers, skulls, glasses of wine, and food all speak to me on a personal level, so I’ve always loved vanitas. Vanitas is a specific genre of still life painting, popularized in northern Europe in the 16th century. Related to the concept of memento mori, vanitas paintings are packed with symbols that remind viewers of the ephemerality of life. Taking it one step further, vanitas art also incorporates symbols to represent greed and vanity (hence the name, ya dig?). A vanitas still life painter would incorporate expensive food items, such as unpeeled citrus fruits and shrimp, to symbolize wealth. Enjoy your lemons and your imported wine, fools—they won’t go with you when you die! A barely touched loaf of bread next to remnants of meat could signify the neglect of Christian communion in favor of earthly, fleeting pleasures. In this way vanitas conveyed key messages through symbolism: be a good Christian, vanity is bad, and death is imminent. Despite the foreboding tone, vanitas paintings are stunning and I covet many of them—even if I can’t take them with me to the afterlife. G

VENICE BIENNALE (n.)

The Venice Biennale is a big deal. This event takes place every two years (biennale is Italian for “every other year”) and features contemporary art, usually linked by a common curatorial theme and created by artists from various countries. The theme provides a framework for exploring social, economic, and political ideas in an international context. The biennial is different than a regular exhibition because it uses multiple venues and is quite large in scale. It is also different from an art fair because the artworks are not for sale.

The Venice Biennale has a long history, with the first exhibition (originally called the Venice International Art Exhibition) taking place in 1895. Two years earlier, the Mayor of Venice, Riccardo Selvatico, proposed a major art exhibition to coincide with the silver wedding anniversary of Italy’s King Umberto and Queen Margherita (talk about anniversary goals). It was held at the Palazzo dell’Esposizione, located in a public garden known as the Giardini on the Riva degli Schiavoni and featured a mix of Italian and European artists. This first exhibition was a big hit, attracting more than 224,000 visitors, so they decided to keep doing it.

Over time, the event became larger and more international. At first, the biennials displayed only one or two artworks by each artist, arranged along the lines of a salon-style hang, and with no overarching theme or concept linking the works. Eventually this changed to presenting solo exhibitions of an artist’s work, and curating thematic group shows. Themes have varied greatly over the years and have included, “Think with the Senses—Feel with the Mind” (2007) and “Il Palazzo Enciclopedico”/“The Encyclopedic Palace” (2013). As you have probably gathered, these themes are a little open ended and allow room for artistic interpretation. This partly explains why the Venice Biennale figures so prominently in the art world. It acts as a snapshot of contemporary art, capturing the zeitgeist of the broader issues that are playing out in the world of art. Today, these biennials attract over 500,000 visitors. Maybe they’ll have room for four more prominent guests at the next one (wink wink, nudge nudge). J

VERISM (n.)

Verism is the adherence to strict naturalism when depicting everyday subjects in art. This is seen most specifically in portraiture and first appeared as an artistic preference of the ancient Romans during the late Roman Republic (147–30 BCE). Verism is a fancy name for “warts and all”—truly, in the case of ancient Rome. Physical imperfections such as warts, wrinkles, furrows, scars, and asymmetries were not only captured but, in some cases, even highlighted and exaggerated. Such imperfections and signs of age signified wisdom and authority during the Late Republic and were synonymous with power. One of the few ways to gain authority in Roman society was to be part of the Senate. However, to be in the Senate, a Roman patrician had to be at least forty-two years of age, which, in ancient times, was considered a mature stage of life. With this in mind, it is debated whether these veristic portraits depict the actual features of the sitter or if they were heavily exaggerated to express aspects of a person’s personality or virtues—say, whether they were wise and authoritative enough to be in the Senate.

In any case, when the Emperor Augustus came to power, he basically said, “uh, girl, no, I need all the filters.” Verism and all of its warts quickly faded into obscurity in favor of idealized portraits depicting “eternal youth” and perfect proportions, modeled after Greek classical sculpture. No longer was there a need to emphasize age and imperfection in order to justify power; the emperor’s power couldn’t be challenged. Therefore, it was much more useful to depict him as forever young and sexy as hell in order to stress the everlasting glory of the Roman Empire. J

VIDEO ART (n.)

The word “video” refers to moving images recorded via a video camera. This can include everything from home movies, to your favorite reality TV show, to this week’s hottest horror flick. “Video art,” however, is a term designated for something else. Don’t get me wrong, the line between movies and the “something else” that constitutes video art is certainly blurry and getting blurrier. The ability to use video as a creative medium is now widely accessible (have I mentioned the Art History Babes have a YouTube channel?? Like, comment, subscribe, baby).

Buuut for the purposes of art history yadda yadda yadda … video art is art that employs the use of video. It is distinguished from theatrical cinema because it does not necessarily rely on the same conventions as your favorite rom-com. In other words, video art has a lot of artistic freedom, and utilizes it generously. For example, two of the early pioneers of video art, Vietnamese-American Nam June Paik and Japanese Shigeko Kubota used video to expand the boundaries of art in a number of ways. In the 1960s and 1970s, Kubota created autobiographical videos with distorted and abstracted images and colors. Nam June Paik’s 1965 Zen For Film took a minimalist approach, projecting thirty minutes of unprocessed film onto a screen.

The incorporation of video into art has allowed for a number of advancements in art production. For example, a fleeting act of performance art can now be captured for future viewing. But this begs the question, what is the difference between an artist recording their avant-garde performance in a modern art museum and Joss Whedon directing Avengers 12: Return of the Avenged?

Yes, I too am so damn sick of these superhero movies, but still, think about it. C

VIDEOGRAPHY (n.)

Videography has to be one of the trendiest mediums right now. I’d even go so far as to say every millennial has a friend who does videography (hey, Zacky!). Technological advances in video cameras, drones, and editing software have allowed for more people than ever to identify as videographers, while platforms such as YouTube, Vimeo, and Instagram have made sharing videos much easier.

DE STIJL, GESTALT THEORY, NARMER PALETTE

Whether it involves a team of videographers using multiple camera angles or a single person with a smartphone—capturing video, editing said video, and creating a shareable final product are the basic components of this genre. Within those components, there is scope for great creativity, both during the shooting of a video and in post-production (meaning after the video has been shot).

Videography has become a common medium for advertisements, promotional videos, wedding videos, or to capture your weekend trip to Yosemite. The general accessibility as a medium creates a lot of room for professional and amateur videographers alike. N

VISUAL ANALYSIS (n.)

Visual analysis—or VA in the biz—is a writing style common in art history for its emphasis on description. Really that’s all it is: describing, plain and simple. While uncomplicated in theory, writing pure visual analysis can be tricky because people love to advance into other, sexy topics, like symbolism. Good visual analysis starts with just looking. You really shouldn’t start writing at all until you’ve spent a solid chunk of time just looking at a work. From there, you write about the formal elements—color, shape, line, figures, composition, and so on. When analyzing, only focus on things that you get from looking at the piece of art. I encourage you to tap into the visual experience of a work and all the sensuality and emotion that comes with it. Resist with all your might, the urge to discuss historical context. I know this part is difficult because you’re full of information and you want your reader to know, but have patience, child—there will be time for that later on. N

VISUAL CULTURE (n.)

Art, architecture, advertisements, fashion, film, video games—anything you encounter visually in your life is an aspect of visual culture. By examining the ways in which different cultures represent such concepts, we are better able to understand what makes those cultures distinct. As an example, consider the Kawaii culture in Japan, which celebrates all things cute and lovable. You could check out some of Kawaii’s visual culture (which I highly recommend) by scrolling “#kawaii” on Instagram, and looking at apparel, accessories, art, and advertisements. The visual culture of Kawaii is generally cute as hell, because that’s a driving force in that culture.

Visual culture is an interdisciplinary approach that can incorporate the arts, humanities, and social and physical sciences. We live in an incredibly optical world, perhaps more so now than ever before, with the growing role technology plays in peoples’ lives. Visual culture considers and encompasses the many different kinds of visual stimuli various cultures create and consume. It’s a fascinating and all-encompassing topic that encourages you to step outside of the exclusive “high” art box and consider all cultural visual materials. G

VISUAL VOCABULARY (n.)

This is a dictionary. Its purpose is to help you build your verbal vocabulary so that, not only will you sound smart at dinner parties, but you will also expand your understanding of the world. Visual vocabulary is all about building your knowledge base of images in the same way that you build a knowledge base of words.

Anyone can build a visual vocabulary, for any purpose. For example, it is a common method for note-taking. If you can connect a concept not only to words, but images as well, you are more likely to be able to recall that information and get an A on the final exam. This is because a word is a symbol the same way an image is a symbol. For example, you can use the words “cute panda” to tell a story about a panda. You can also use a cute lil' cartoon image of a panda to tell a story about a panda. Both the words and the image add to your holistic understanding of the concept “cute panda.”

Establishing a visual vocabulary is a necessary skill for artists. For example, cartoonists use and enhance their visual vocabulary constantly. Cartoons are made of repeated images of the same characters in different scenarios. Therefore, it is necessary for a cartoonist to simplify the characters that they use, and practice drawing them in a variety of scenarios. They must master a visual vocabulary.

Expanding visual vocabulary is just as valuable as expanding verbal vocabulary. It requires you to engage visually with the world around you. It causes your brain to think differently about the person, place, thing, or concept in question. This builds more neural connections and, with them, more creativity. Plus, you’ll dominate at Pictionary. C

VOTIVE (n.)

A votive is an object left as an offering to a deity. The practice of making votive offerings has been made in the name of polytheistic and monotheistic gods across the world for millennia—everybody’s doin’ it. Votives can be a whole range of items, such as candles, food, jewelry, paintings, and sculpture. Ancient Mesopotamians left wee statues in temples to stand in for the real-life donor when they could not be physically present. The ancient Greeks built statues of life-sized sexy bronze men as votive offerings for gods and goddesses to ogle at. Practitioners of witchcraft have created and left votive offerings on altars and out in nature for centuries. Votives have taken, and continue to take, many different forms, depending on the religious context and specific intent of the votive. Because votives are meant to honor a divine figure, oftentimes they are works of art in and of themselves—created and designed by skilled craftsmen and artists. Due to the endurance of religions across the globe, votives are likely to be around long after I’m gone from this earth and chilling on a pyramid on a moonbeam somewhere. G

VOYEURISM (n.)

The word “voyeur” is used interchangeably with the phrase “Peeping Tom.” And this would be correct. A Peeping Tom is a type of voyeur, and as such, is associated with invasions of privacy, often of a sexual nature. However, voyeurism can involve taking pleasure in watching any scene or activity that may not be intended for public viewing, or in which the agency of the person being watched is not respected. In this context, the key characteristics are that the watched subject is unaware that they are being watched and the watcher, or voyeur, gains pleasure from watching.

Now, the art history part. This concept plays heavily into art theory because studying art requires the act of looking at, and examining, visual material. This visual material typically has a subject, and that subject is often a human person. There is a voyeuristic gaze at play in the making and enjoyment of many of these images. This has been widely discussed in terms of the “male gaze.” This term, first coined by feminist film theorist Laura Mulvey, refers to the sexual objectification of women by men. Throughout history, an inordinate number of images have been created by, and for, the male gaze (think of the countless paintings of sexy naked ladies commissioned by rich powerful men). However, men are not the only ones with gazes. There is also the feminine gaze, the imperial gaze, the postcolonial gaze, and the oppositional gaze. The notion of the gaze is pretty fundamental to understanding how we look at artistic portrayals of humans, and therefore, how we look at actual humans.

Many artists have explored and subverted the gaze with their work. American figurative painter Jordan Casteel reverses the gaze in her 2019 exhibition “Returning the Gaze.” Many of Casteel’s portraits depict black men living and working in Harlem. She paints these men with honest emotionality and direct eye contact, in a space of the subject’s own choosing. Casteel’s work creates an exchange between the viewer and the viewed that fully humanizes the subject. When the gaze is returned, there is a sense of knowing and awareness, the viewed have agency and the voyeurism of the viewer is challenged. C

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WALL TEXT (n.)

If you’ve ever been told “the writing’s on the wall,” either you were in need of a reality check, or you were walking into an art show. Wall text is any writing on the walls of an art exhibition. If you visit an art show today, chances are there will be at least some wall text. Whether it’s merely small labels accompanying individual pieces of art, or paragraphs of text meant to explain the show, wall text helps visitors better understand an exhibition. Labels are generally small plaques with the work’s title, artist’s name, date, medium, and any other information that’s relevant to the work. This can mean a price if the work is for sale, the name of the owner if it’s being borrowed, or a brief explanation for educational purposes. Art preparators can also adhere vinyl lettering right onto the clean walls of a gallery. This technique has been pretty trendy since the advent of the white cube style gallery space. Plus, peeling the lettering off at the end has to be one of the most satisfying feelings. N

WATERCOLOR PAINT (n.)

Water is a big deal. It makes up sixty percent of your body and seventy-one percent of Earth’s surface. Opinions vary, but you should be drinking somewhere in the realm of four pints (two liters) of water per day. It makes sense that humans would harness this invaluable resource for art-making.

Watercolor is a painting medium in which the paint pigments are suspended in a water-based solution. This gives the paint color a lovely transparency. Watercolor is used on a number of surfaces, the most common being watercolor paper. Regular paper may warp when wet, but watercolor paper is made with cotton to minimize such distortion. Watercolor technique is special because you get to play with the effects of good ole H2O. For example, you can use water to dilute and lighten a color, as opposed to adding white paint.

Watercolor has a looong and varied history as a medium used by cultures all over the world for everything from landscape painting to calligraphy to still life. It is a great introductory medium for small children (because mess is minimal compared to other paints) and a lovely way to spend your Sunday afternoon. Instant creative satisfaction, just add water!

Now put down this book for a moment and take a water break you majestic and likely dehydrated babe. C

THE WHITE CUBE (n.)

The “white cube” is a reference to the modern gallery space as coined by Brian O’Doherty in his series of essays Inside the White Cube: The Ideology of the Gallery Space. Originally published in Artforum in 1976, the essays have since been published into a handy little book. The white cube is generally a rectangular or oblong gallery space, painted white with overhead lighting. It has been stripped of its artifice in order to free it of any context. Opposed to the outside world, it’s important that the white cube is a neutral space. O’Doherty examined how we display and consume art in a postwar climate, and what that says about our relationship to said art. He does this by looking at exhibitions from the 20th century, and working through the problems brought on by the modern gallery. These range from artist/curator problems, such as how to hang art in a modern space, to problems surrounding the visitor’s needs, such as how to interact with an ever-changing environment.

Basically, if you’ve ever walked into an art gallery and thought, “Where am I supposed to stand?,” you’re going to get something out of these essays. N

WOODCUT (n.)

A woodcut is a type of print made from a design cut into a block of wood. Areas that the artist cuts out create negative space, while the remaining surface transfers the ink to produce the print. The surface is covered with ink using an ink-covered roller (called a brayer), leaving ink upon the flat surface, but not in the nonprinting areas.

Originating in China during antiquity, the earliest woodblock fragments are attributed to the Han Dynasty (c. 220 CE). In Europe, woodcut is the oldest technique used for Old Master prints, developing around 1400. In Japan, woodblock prints became all the rage in the 18th and 19th centuries, making up a good portion of the ukiyo-e prints that influenced many modernist European artists. Woodcut printmaking became a popular form of art in Mexico during the early to mid-20th century. Artists used it to convey political unrest and it was a popular medium for political activism, especially after the Mexican Revolution (1910–20). The accessibility and versatility of woodcuts made them a big deal in art history and they have been instrumental to the creation of entire styles, as well as driving social movements. Today, the cheaper and easier to produce linocut has mostly replaced the woodcut. It involves the same process but with with linoleum. J

WORKSHOP (n.)

Have you ever looked at a piece of art and thought, “there’s no way that one person made that thing …”? Well there’s a good chance they didn’t. They most likely had a workshop to help them. Workshops are spaces where artists can work with a team of skilled craftsmen to help complete their artwork. Contemporary artists such as British Damien Hirst and American Jeff Koons have workshops to create their monumental and grandiose artworks. Sometimes the people working in these workshops are artists themselves, and often they’re people with more specific technical abilities. I imagine creating a work like Damien Hirst’s The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living (1991), would require quite the team of experts. In these situations, the artist becomes the creative mastermind with a team of employees to complete their vision—not a problem considering Hirst and Koons’ work goes for millions of dollars on the reg.

Historically, many successful artists have used workshops in more or less the same way. Famous painters would often have a workshop to complete less important tasks or aspects of their work. Workshop attendants could be in charge of something as simple as mixing paint colors, or they could do as much as paint an entire background. Due to workshop production, sometimes it’s difficult to know for sure which aspects of a work were completed by the artist, and who else may have had a hand in it. Because of this, works are often displayed in museums as “from the workshop of [ insert artist name ].” N

AVANT-GARDE, ZIGGURAT

Y

YARN BOMB (n./v.)

Have you ever been walking around a city and been confronted with a pole or tree wearing a knitted sweater? Did it make you stop and think, “huh?” Well, my friend, that was yarn bombing. The practice of covering public areas, objects, or even trees with colorful knitted (or crocheted) yarn or fibers is a type of graffiti, or street art. Unlike graffiti, however, yarn bombing is less permanent and can be easily removed. It’s hard to pin down when yarn bombing began in earnest, but we can place its rise somewhere between 2009 and 2011. It’s thought to have started in Texas, where a group of knitters decided to make use of their half-finished scarves, sweaters, mittens, and hats and make art for the community to enjoy. From here the practice took off and yarn bombing started popping up in cities all over the world. Yarn bombing, as its name implies, is somewhat of a clandestine practice, and shows up without warning. Urban environments are usually choice locations for yarn bombing because there’s a) a lot of stuff you can cover, and b) a lot of people who will see it.

Yarn bombing can be a form of protest art, used to disrupt or bring awareness to an issue. In 2015, the Polish artist Olek covered a women’s homeless shelter in Delhi to raise awareness for the shelter and to protest the Indian caste system that results in the widespread poverty that makes such shelters necessary. Yarn bombing is a colorful, pleasant way to make people stop and think, but be warned: in some places this practice is considered vandalism, so check out the laws before you go yarn bombin’ (unless you are a renegade knitter who eschews the man’s laws, in which case, we’ll look the other way). J

YOUNG BRITISH ARTISTS (n.)

Death, sex, drugs … just a few of the YBA’s (and AHB’s) favorite themes. The Young British Artists—known as YBAs—came to prominence in the late 1980s. These loosely affiliated artists were bound by an open-minded attitude toward art-making, an entrepreneurial spirit, and a proclivity for dark themes (hell yeah). Included in the group were Sarah Lucas, Jenny Saville, and Tracey Emin. Many of the YBAs studied at the Bachelor of Fine Art program at Goldsmiths College, London, a program known for disregarding the convention of separating students based on medium. All the painters, sculptors, photographers, printmakers, and so on, studied together in mixed classes rather than those designated by medium, and this subtle dismantling of convention may have nudged them to be open-minded in terms of process as well.

The YBAs are known for their innovative and shock-inducing artwork. There are two exhibitions in particular associated with the YBAs—“Freeze” in 1988, and “Sensation” in 1997. “Freeze” was curated by a baby-faced Damien Hirst and drew a lot of attention. Included in the show was Emin’s Everyone I Have Ever Slept With, 1963–1995 (1995). This work features a tent with the names of everyone she’s shared a bed with—whether the experience was sexual, or not—inscribed on the inside of the tent. Emin’s work is largely considered confessional and this work represents intimacy more than sexual conquest. It also demonstrates the postmodern impetus of disregarding so-called “fine art” media for low-culture items.

Ironically, making art that casually blurs the line between high and low culture, resulted in many of the YBAs becoming extremely rich. N

Z

ZIGGURAT (n.)

Man, I just really love some good, old-fashioned, stepped-platform architecture. Basically, you have a flat platform, usually made of stone or mud bricks, and then you slap a smaller platform on top, and so on and so forth, until you end up with a structure that could be called a pyramid, or a ziggurat! But wait Jen, what is the difference between a ziggurat and a pyramid? That’s a good question, dear reader, and the answer is: it’s complicated.

Some historians and archaeologists distinguish ziggurats from pyramids by their function. Ziggurats served as a platform that elevated a temple to house the gods and give them a cool place to chill and receive votive offerings from mortals. Pyramids, on the other hand, were tombs, acting as the final resting place of the great Egyptian pharaohs. However, the pyramids in ancient Mesoamerica throw this theory right out the window. These pyramids also acted primarily as enormous platforms for temples and we call them pyramids, not ziggurats! What the heck! Another theory is that the term “ziggurat”—taken from the ancient Akkadian word for “to build on a raised area”—is merely the name we give these structures that are specifically from the ancient Mesopotamian world. Fine.

Ziggurats are sure to show up in your introductory art history class. This is because we often begin with ancient Mesopotamia in many introductory art history classes (fertile crescent and whatnot). Mesopotamia (the area we now call the Middle East) was one of the earliest complex civilizations in human history. Groups such as the Sumerians, Akkadians, and Babylonians all built ziggurats as part of elaborate temple complexes where only a select few could enter, namely priests and rulers. These structures were made of mud bricks, unlike their Egyptian and Mesoamerican cousins, which were made of stone and were glazed in dazzling colors that have since been eroded by desert winds. There are few surviving ziggurats—about twenty-five by conservative estimates—with the ziggurat at Ur, in modern day Iraq, being one of the most extant examples. Climate change, erosion, and more notably, human intervention (for example, war in the Middle East) are some of the greatest threats to the remaining ziggurats, so hopefully we’ll all get our shit together soon or else we’ll be left with nothing but pyramids. J

ZINE (n.)

Fanzines. I have to admit, I’m a sucker for an abbreviated word. Zines are small folio books or pamphlets that began as cheap ways to disseminate information but have become a medium unto their own.

The origin and spread of zines owe much to various countercultures of the 20th century, mostly via nerds (which I say affectionately), musicians, and feminists. Zines were first invented in the 1930s by science fiction fans as a way to self-publish and distribute their “fanzines” (fan magazines dedicated to sci-fi films). Earlier methods of large-batch production were time-consuming, so when copy shops became popular in the 1970s, it was a true game changer. Photocopying allowed creatives in the punk music scene in London, New York, and LA to make, copy, and distribute thousands of zines through the 1970s and 80s. The Riot grrrls coming out of Washington in the 1990s also embraced the medium, breathing new life into the zine scene. Their manifesto laid out how members should start a band, make a zine, and get their voices heard—rad! Both movements believed strongly in the DIY (that’s “do it yourself”) ethos and aesthetic, which is why zines often embrace the handmade look.

Whether they’re folded, glued, or bound, hand-drawn, photocopied, or created on a big-ass printing press, zines are still being made by artists worldwide. Zine fairs or conventions take place all over the world and allow artists to showcase their work, meet other zine artists, and potentially sell some work. The internet has also had an impact, allowing both for the creation of e-zines as well as providing a platform for artists to sell their paper zines regardless of where they live. Zines, at their core, are about independent thought and creativity. What’s not to love? N

FIND OUT MORE

For podcasts, blog posts, videos and more, visit:

www.arthistorybabes.com

→ Ades, Dawn, Marcel Duchamp, Neil Cox, and David Hopkins. Marcel Duchamp. New York, N.Y.: Thames and Hudson, 1999.

→ Artsy:
www.artsy.net

→ Bailey, Gauvin. Baroque & Rococo. London: Phaidon Press Inc., 2012.

→ Camille, Michael. Gothic Art: Glorious Visions. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1996.

→ Charney, Noah. The Art of Forgery: The Minds, Motives, and Methods of Master Forgers. London: Phaidon Press Inc., 2015.

→ Cohen, Jeffrey Jerome. Monster Theory: reading culture. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996.

→ Craven, David. Art and Revolution in Latin America (1910–1990). New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2002.

→ Curran, Brian., Anthony Grafton, Pamela Long, Benjamin Weiss. Obelisk: A History. Cambridge: The Burndy Library, 2009.

→ Curran, Brian. The Egyptian Renaissance: The Afterlife of Ancient Egypt in Early Modern Italy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007.

→ Debord, Guy. The Society of Spectacle. New York: Zone Books, 1994.

→ Decolonize this Place: www.Decolonizethisplace.org

→ Gay, Peter. Modernism: The Lure of Heresy from Baudelaire to Beckett and Beyond. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 2008.

→ Gruzinski, Serge. Images at War: Mexico From Columbus to Blade Runner (1492–2019). Durham & London: Duke University Press, 2001.

→ Hodge, Susie. Art in Detail: 100 Masterpieces. London: Thames & Hudson Inc., 2016.

→ Hyperallergic: hyperallergic.com

→ Huxley, Aldous. The Doors of Perception: and Heaven and Hell. New York: Harper & Row, 1963.

→ Kettenmann, Andrea. Frida Kahlo, 1907–1954: Pain and Passion. Köln: Benedikt Taschen, 2000.

→ Khan Academy: www.khanacademy.org

→ Leach, Neil. Architecture and revolution: contemporary perspectives on Central and Eastern Europe. London: Psychology Press, 1999.

→ Lorde, Audre. Uses of the erotic: the erotic as power. Tucson, AZ: Kore Press, 2000.

→ Lucie-Smith, Edward. Latin American Art Since 1900. Third Edition. London: Thames & Hudson, 2020.

→ Morris, Frances, Tiffany Bell, Marion Ackermann, and Agnes Martin. Agnes Martin. New York, NY: D.A.P./Distributed Art Publishers Inc, 2015.

→ Mulvey, Laura. Visual and Other Pleasures. Palgrave Macmillan UK, 1989.

→ Nagel, Alexander and Christopher S. Wood. Anachronic Renaissance. New York, NY: Zone Books, 2010.

→ Nicholas, Lynn H. The Rape of Europa: The Fate of Europe’s Treasures in the Third Reich and the Second World War. New York: Random House Inc., 1994.

→ O'Doherty, Brian. Inside the white cube: the ideology of the gallery space. Santa Monica: Lapis Press, 1986.

→ Quinn, Bridget. Broad Strokes: 15 Women Who Made Art and Made History (In That Order). San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 2017

→ Root, Deborah. Cannibal Culture: Art, Appropriation, And the Commodification Of Difference. Boulder: Westview Press, 1996.

→ Said, Edward W. Orientalism. New York: Pantheon Books, 1978.

→ Saltz, Jerry. How to Be an Artist. New York: Riverhead Books, 2020.

→ Sontag, Susan. Against interpretation, and other essays. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1966.

→ St. Clair, Kassia. The Secret Lives of Color. New York: Penguin Books, 2016.

→ Thomkins, Calvin. Duchamp: A Biography. New York: The Museum of Modern Art, 1996.

→ Zumthor, Peter. Atmospheres. Basel: Birkhäuser Verlag GmbH, 2006.

THANKS

Endless love and appreciation to our community of podcast listeners and followers. You all have been a continuous source of encouragement and inspiration to us, and we are so grateful to have attracted such a beautiful community with our work.

We all found ourselves enveloped in the world of art history thanks to passionate, brilliant, and thoughtful professors. Thank you for teaching us, encouraging us, reading our writing, and challenging us; we are forever grateful. Ricardo De Mambro Santos, Letha Ch’ien, Talinn Grigor, Catherine Anderson, Lynn Roller, Anna Novakov, Susette Min, James Housefield, Hegnar Wattenpaugh, Ferdinanda Florence, Maceo Montoya, Sarah Sik.

To the loved ones in our lives—family, partners, friends—thank you for your support and enthusiasm for this book and what we’ve been building. It has meant the world to us and we love you all.

Thank you to all of the “Art Buds” for fostering a creative community built on friendship, dance parties, and shared interest in art. This podcast, business, and book would not exist without our time in Davis, and that time would not have been the same without all of you.

Special thanks to Ang for all of your support, and for feeding and “mothering” the babes whenever given the chance. To our amazing team of “lawyer dads”—Dan Kohls and Felix De La Torre—thank you for your guidance through this new experience. To Jerry Hendricks, Jill Hendricks, and Kristine Hendricks, thank you dearly for housing and supporting an Art History Babe throughout the process of writing this book. To Anne Tignanelli, your daughter will be forever grateful for your abundant curiosity and unconditional support. To Jim Van Dine, thank you for sharing your love of history and storytelling with your daughter. To Fred and Maria Gutierrez, thank you for endlessly supporting and bolstering your daughter's love for art and culture. A tremendous thank you to Sonya Mogilner and Kelsey Berka, for keeping their resident Art History Babe fed and loved while writing this book.

Thank you Alice Graham, Laura Bulbeck and Isabel Eeles for your feedback and your fundamental role in bringing this book to life. Thank you to Carmen Casado for providing the beautiful illustrations that accompany our text. They add something so special to the book.

Creativity, friendship and collaboration made this book possible and we encourage you to nurture all those aspects in your life—the results can be magical.

First published in 2020 by White Lion Publishing,

an imprint of The Quarto Group.

The Old Brewery, 6 Blundell Street

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United Kingdom

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www.QuartoKnows.com

Text © 2020 The Art History Babes

Illustrations © 2020 Carmen Casado

The Art History Babes have asserted their moral right to be identified as the Author of this Work in accordance with the Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilised in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from White Lion Publishing.

Every effort has been made to trace the copyright holders of material quoted in this book. If application is made in writing to the publisher, any omissions will be included in future editions.

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Digital edition: 978-0-71125-415-2
Softcover edition: 978-0-71124-882-3

Publisher → Philip Cooper

Commissioning Editor → Alice Graham

Project Editor → Laura Bulbeck

Designer → Isabel Eeles